Cognitive mapping the topic of new product development
(NPD)
Joseph
Kim-keung Ho
Independent Trainer
Hong Kong, China
Abstract: The topic of new product
development (NPD) in the subject of Business Management is complex. By making
use of the cognitive mapping technique to conduct a brief literature review on
the new product development topic, the writer renders a systemic image on the
topic of new product development. The result of the study, in the form of a
cognitive map on new product development, should be useful to those who are
interested in the topics of cognitive mapping, literature review and new
product development.
Key words: New
product development (NPD), cognitive mapping, literature review
Introduction
As a
topic in Business Management, new product development (NPD) is complex. It is
thus useful to employ some learning tool to conduct its study, notably for
literature review purpose. For a teacher in research methods, systems thinking
and management, the writer is specifically interested in finding out how the
cognitive mapping technique can be employed to go through a literature review
on new product development. This
literature review exercise is taken up and reported in this article.
On the cognitive mapping exercise for
literature review
Literature
review is an important intellectual learning exercise, and not just for doing
final year dissertation projects for tertiary education students. On these two
topics of intellectual learning and literature review, the writer has compiled
some e-learning resources. They are the Managerial
intellectual learning Facebook page and the Literature on literature review Facebook page. Conducting
literature review with the cognitive mapping technique is not novel in the
cognitive mapping literature, see Eden and Simpson (1989), Eden, Jones and Sims
(1983), Open University (n.d) and the Literature
on cognitive mapping Facebook page. In this article, the specific steps
involved in the cognitive mapping exercise are as follows:
Step 1:
gather some main points from a number of academic journal articles on New
product development. This result in the production of a table (Table 1) with
the main points and associated references.
Step 2: consolidate the main points from Table 1 to come up with
a table listing the cognitive map variables (re: Table 2).
Step 3: link
up the cognitive map variables in a
plausible way to produce a cognitive map (re: Figure 1) on the topic under
review.
The next
section applies these three steps to produce a cognitive map on new product
development.
Descriptions of cognitive map variables on
the new product development topic
From the
reading of some academic articles on New product development, a number of main
points (e.g., viewpoints, concepts and empirical findings) were gathered by
the writer. They are shown in Table 1
with explicit referencing on the points.
Table 1: Main
points from the new product development literature and referencing
Main points from the new product
development literature
|
Referencing
|
Point 1: "Bringing new products to
market is crucial in today’s competitive business environment as market
leadership, healthy market share, and sustained growth are all enabled
through the process of developing and launching successful new products and
services. New product development (NPD) practitioners are therefore keen to
benchmark NPD practices because identifying a practice–whether a technique,
method, process, or activity—that is able to more efficiently and/or
effectively deliver a new product could spell the difference between success
and failure in terms of vitality for both the product and company".
|
Barczak, G. and K.B. Kahn. 2012. "Identifying
new product development best practice" Business Horizons 55, Elsevier: 293-305.
|
Point 2: "... is there a general consensus
as to what constitutes an NPD [new product development] best practice? This
question addresses whether there is a general set of best practices or
whether best practices are context- or industry-specific. ...... are NPD practitioners knowledgeable about
the status of NPD research and what is says as far as what constitutes an NPD
best practice? This question examines whether benchmarking results are
properly disseminated to the NPD practitioner community. That is, are
benchmarking results translating into actual NPD practice?".
|
Barczak, G. and K.B. Kahn. 2012. "Identifying
new product development best practice" Business Horizons 55, Elsevier: 293-305.
|
Point 3: "Like many business
processes, new product development has various facets and has been delineated
across multiple dimensions into which numerous characteristics can be
classified. While the number and labeling of these dimensions is dependent on
the benchmarking study, a common purpose has been to identify best practices
with the expectation that companies will manifest and sustain these".
|
Barczak, G. and K.B. Kahn. 2012. "Identifying
new product development best practice" Business Horizons 55, Elsevier: 293-305.
|
Point 4: "A participative approach to new
product development (NPD) has been advocated in the literature since the mid-1980s
(e.g., Takeuchi and Nonaka 1986; Day 1994; Eppinger 2001; O’Marah 2002).
Nonetheless, the integration of NPD remains one of the top challenges facing managers
of U.S. manufacturing firms (Ettlie 1995, 1997; Repenning, Goncalves and
Black 2001). A recent panel discussion among leading researchers and
executives indicates many companies continue to lack internal integration
across their functional areas and with the external members of their supply
chains".
|
Tracey, M. 2004. "A Holistic Approach to New
Product Development: New Insights" The
Journal of Supply Chain Management Fall: 37-5.
|
Point
5: "Ongoing integrated NPD leads to long-term viable advantage in three
ways: making products available before competitors, incorporating the latest
technology into these products, and expending fewer resources in providing
them than the competition (Suri 1998). This is particularly relevant under
the conditions of uncertainty and fierce competition facing many
manufacturers today".
|
Tracey, M. 2004. "A Holistic Approach to New
Product Development: New Insights" The
Journal of Supply Chain Management Fall: 37-5.
|
Point
6: "Bovet and Sheffi (1998) maintained that early consideration of all
supply chain variables in business decision making is critical to meeting the
needs of customers cost-efficiently. Ettlie (1997) contended that genuine integrated
product design includes the various disciplines and functions that span a
life cycle of new products and services, extending through recycling or
disposal of the product’s remnants. Repenning et al. (2001) asserted that
problems discovered late in the product development process often result in
the need for extra resources and deviation from standard development
procedure. This in turn leads to an inefficient firefighting mode of development
across the organization that can significantly hurt its capacity to create
valuable products".
|
Tracey, M. 2004. "A Holistic Approach to New
Product Development: New Insights" The
Journal of Supply Chain Management Fall: 37-5.
|
Point
7: "In its purest form, product creation is the art, craft, and science
of shaping the future. It is accomplished by creating companies and other
entities that are capable of profitably solving customer problems".
|
Tomkovick,
C. and C, Miller. 2000. "Perspective - Ring the Wind: Managing New
Product Development in an Age of Change"
J Prod Innov Manag 17,
Elsevier: 413-423
|
Point
8: "Innovation success typically requires both process and product
champions. Process champions aggressively promote R&D as a legitimate and
necessary company investment and continually work toward upgrading NPD [new
product development] process quality. Product champions, as the name suggests,
enthusiastically shepherd particular projects through the various NPD stages,
often from new product concept to commercialization".
|
Tomkovick,
C. and C, Miller. 2000. "Perspective - Ring the Wind: Managing New
Product Development in an Age of Change"
J Prod Innov Manag 17,
Elsevier: 413-423.
|
Point
9: "Product deletion and product retention decisions have significant
consequences for new product development. Retention of poorly selling
products may constitute a barrier to successful development and
commercialization of potentially profitable new products".
|
Tomkovick,
C. and C, Miller. 2000. "Perspective - Ring the Wind: Managing New
Product Development in an Age of Change"
J Prod Innov Manag 17,
Elsevier: 413-423.
|
Point
10: "New products are emerging
continuously at an accelerated rate because of dynamic forces such as
accelerated technology, greater customer demands, total quality management,
global competition, reengineering, shared information systems, and government
regulations, but the processes for developing them are still a series of
discrete, sometimes overlapping steps. New product development needs to be a
continuous process as we move into an era of continuous innovation".
|
Huges,
G.D. and D.C. Chafin. 1996. "Turning New Product Development into a
Continuous Learning Porcess" J
Prod Innov Manag, Elsevier: 89-104.
|
Point 11: "Existing product
development processes served us well during the era of stable market
conditions, but now we must reexamine them, build on their strengths, and
move onward to more dynamic systems that can deliver the right product when
the customer needs it and faster than the competition. The right product is defined
as one that adds value to the entire chain that leads to the end user. For
the final end user, value added may be perceived values, which are ultimately
measured by customer satisfaction indices".
|
Huges,
G.D. and D.C. Chafin. 1996. "Turning New Product Development into a
Continuous Learning Porcess" J
Prod Innov Manag, Elsevier: 89-104.
|
Point 12: "A majority of successful innovations is
developed through the collective efforts of individuals in new product development
teams (hereafter, NPD teams). NPD teams are organizational workgroups where
individuals from diverse personal and organizational backgrounds come
together for a limited (and usually, predetermined) time period and work in
close collaboration towards creating, designing, developing, and marketing a
new product (Pinto, 2002). The ultimate objective of all NPD teams is
superior marketplace success of the new product".
|
Akgűn, A.E., G.S. Lynn and C. Vɪlmaz. 2006.
"Learning process in new product development teams and effects on
product success: A socio-cognitive perspective" Industrial Marketing Management 35, Elsevier: 210-224.
|
Point 13: "Understanding and
explaining the processes and procedures through which knowledge is generated,
shared, disseminated, and utilized (that is, learned) in NPD teams is ..... critical for understanding new product success. While considerable research has focused
on the learning phenomenon in NPD teams (Meyers & Wilemon, 1989; Purser,
Pasmore, & Tenkasi, 1992), particularly on the dynamics of team
information-processing (Lynn, Reilly, & Akgu¨n, 2000; Moorman, 1995;
Moorman & Miner, 1997, 1998), the current state of knowledge about the
learning phenomenon in NPD teams needs to be expanded to include a greater
understanding of the process of learning and its effects on project outcomes".
|
Akgűn, A.E., G.S. Lynn and C. Vɪlmaz. 2006.
"Learning process in new product development teams and effects on
product success: A socio-cognitive perspective" Industrial Marketing Management 35, Elsevier: 210-224.
|
Point 14: "In line with the paramount interest in
knowledge creation, scholars are paying attention to new product development in
high technology firms. Product innovation has been recognized as in essence
for their renewal (Dougherty, 1992). These firms heavily rely on new product
introduction and commercialization to survive in intensive competitive environment
characterized by rapid product obsolesce and evolving customer needs. High
technology firms pursue growth mainly through new product development, which
in turn results in unprecedented levels of new product introductions".
|
Yang, J. and C.Y. Liu. 2006. "New
product development: An innovation diffusion perspective" Journal of High Technology Management
Research 17, Elsevier: 17-26.
|
Point 15: "Empirical studies by Nickell (1996) and Blundell, Griffith, and Reenen
(1999) have suggested a positive relationship between product market
competition and innovative output. Firms subject to increased product market
competition exhibit a higher propensity to adopt technological innovations.
Product market competition and prior adoptions are found to be important
determinants of technology adoptions as well. In more concentrated
industries, the adoption of technological innovations is maximized".
|
Yang, J. and C.Y. Liu. 2006. "New
product development: An innovation diffusion perspective" Journal of High Technology Management
Research 17, Elsevier: 17-26.
|
Point 16: "New product
development (NPD) speed has become increasingly important for management of
innovation in organizations due to continuous reduction in the product life
cycle time and increase in competition from technological advancements and globalization.
A variety of strategic perspectives, such as time based competition,
first-mover advantage, fast-follower strategy, and fast product development
cycle time, have emphasized the importance of innovation and NPD speed (Kessler
and Chakrabarti, 1996; Menon et al., 2002; Stalk and Hout, 1990). These perspectives
represent a shift in management focus from a more-traditional cost
orientation to a time orientation suitable for a fast-changing business
environment".
|
Chen, J., F. Damanpour and R.R. Reilly.
2010. "Understanding antecedents
of new product development speed: A meta-analysis" Journal of Operations Management 28,
Elsevier: 17-33.
|
Point 17: "By
developing products quickly, companies can achieve several important
benefits. First, fast NPD [new product development] can increase product profitability,
margins, and market share. Firms are able to translate time into profits by
satisfying their ‘‘impatient’’ customers, who are willing to pay a premium if
they can get goods and services very quickly (Brown and Eisenhardt, 1995).
Second, companies with fast NPD have a greater chance to establish industry
standards and may lock up distribution channels (Dumaine, 1989). Third, a
firm with the capability of developing products rapidly can quickly respond
to market demands, improving the timeliness of its product entry and customer
satisfaction".
|
Chen, J., F. Damanpour and R.R. Reilly.
2010. "Understanding antecedents
of new product development speed: A meta-analysis" Journal of Operations Management 28,
Elsevier: 17-33.
|
Point 18: "New
product development (NPD) is a complex and challenging activity. The challenge
of managing NPD can be illustrated by addressing a number of difficult – and
yet most essential – questions: How to anticipate future events in markets? How
to foresee competitors’ strategies and actions? How to understand the logic of
potential customers in evaluating competing products and services? How to
deal with the uncertainties of all the factors affecting the success of the
new products being developed?".
|
Suomala, P.
2005. "Life cycle perspective in the measurement of new product
development performance" Managing
Product Innovation Advances in
Business Marketing and Purchasing
13, Elsevier: 523-700.
|
Point
19: "Industrial R&D can be seen as a continuum that starts from
basic or applied research and ends with the development and design of a
commercial product. It is unlikely that a project will straightforwardly pass
all the phases of the continuum; rather, a company is typically able to
maintain a certain amount of applied research, concept development, and
product development activities/projects.".
|
Suomala, P.
2005. "Life cycle perspective in the measurement of new product
development performance" Managing
Product Innovation Advances in
Business Marketing and Purchasing
13, Elsevier: 523-700.
|
With a
set of main points collected, the writer produces a set of cognitive map
variables. These variables are informed by the set of main points from Table 1.
These variables are presented in Table 2.
Table 2:
Cognitive map variables based on Table 1
Cognitive
map variables
|
Literature
review points
|
Variable 1: Drivers of interest in new
product development
|
Point 1: "Bringing new products to
market is crucial in today’s competitive business environment as market
leadership, healthy market share, and sustained growth are all enabled
through the process of developing and launching successful new products and
services. New product development (NPD) practitioners are therefore keen to
benchmark NPD practices because identifying a practice–whether a technique,
method, process, or activity—that is able to more efficiently and/or
effectively deliver a new product could spell the difference between success
and failure in terms of vitality for both the product and company".
Point 3: "Like many business
processes, new product development has various facets and has been delineated
across multiple dimensions into which numerous characteristics can be
classified. While the number and labeling of these dimensions is dependent on
the benchmarking study, a common purpose has been to identify best practices
with the expectation that companies will manifest and sustain these".
Point
10: "New products are emerging
continuously at an accelerated rate because of dynamic forces such as
accelerated technology, greater customer demands, total quality management,
global competition, reengineering, shared information systems, and government
regulations, but the processes for developing them are still a series of
discrete, sometimes overlapping steps. New product development needs to be a
continuous process as we move into an era of continuous innovation".
|
Variable 2: Improve intellectual
understanding of new product development
|
Point
7: "In its purest form, product creation is the art, craft, and science
of shaping the future. It is accomplished by creating companies and other
entities that are capable of profitably solving customer problems".
Point 11: "Existing product
development processes served us well during the era of stable market
conditions, but now we must reexamine them, build on their strengths, and
move onward to more dynamic systems that can deliver the right product when
the customer needs it and faster than the competition. The right product is defined
as one that adds value to the entire chain that leads to the end user. For
the final end user, value added may be perceived values, which are ultimately
measured by customer satisfaction indices".
Point 16: "New product
development (NPD) speed has become increasingly important for management of
innovation in organizations due to continuous reduction in the product life
cycle time and increase in competition from technological advancements and globalization.
A variety of strategic perspectives, such as time based competition,
first-mover advantage, fast-follower strategy, and fast product development
cycle time, have emphasized the importance of innovation and NPD speed (Kessler
and Chakrabarti, 1996; Menon et al., 2002; Stalk and Hout, 1990). These perspectives
represent a shift in management focus from a more-traditional cost
orientation to a time orientation suitable for a fast-changing business
environment".
Point 17: "By
developing products quickly, companies can achieve several important
benefits. First, fast NPD [new product development] can increase product profitability,
margins, and market share. Firms are able to translate time into profits by
satisfying their ‘‘impatient’’ customers, who are willing to pay a premium if
they can get goods and services very quickly (Brown and Eisenhardt, 1995).
Second, companies with fast NPD have a greater chance to establish industry
standards and may lock up distribution channels (Dumaine, 1989). Third, a
firm with the capability of developing products rapidly can quickly respond
to market demands, improving the timeliness of its product entry and customer
satisfaction".
Point 18: "New
product development (NPD) is a complex and challenging activity. The challenge
of managing NPD can be illustrated by addressing a number of difficult – and
yet most essential – questions: How to anticipate future events in markets? How
to foresee competitors’ strategies and actions? How to understand the logic of
potential customers in evaluating competing products and services? How to
deal with the uncertainties of all the factors affecting the success of the
new products being developed?".
Point
19: "Industrial R&D can be seen as a continuum that starts from
basic or applied research and ends with the development and design of a
commercial product. It is unlikely that a project will straightforwardly pass
all the phases of the continuum; rather, a company is typically able to
maintain a certain amount of applied research, concept development, and
product development activities/projects.".
|
Variable 3: Effective new product
development practices
|
Point 4: "A participative approach to new
product development (NPD) has been advocated in the literature since the mid-1980s
(e.g., Takeuchi and Nonaka 1986; Day 1994; Eppinger 2001; O’Marah 2002).
Nonetheless, the integration of NPD remains one of the top challenges facing managers
of U.S. manufacturing firms (Ettlie 1995, 1997; Repenning, Goncalves and
Black 2001). A recent panel discussion among leading researchers and
executives indicates many companies continue to lack internal integration
across their functional areas and with the external members of their supply
chains".
Point
5: "Ongoing integrated NPD leads to long-term viable advantage in three
ways: making products available before competitors, incorporating the latest
technology into these products, and expending fewer resources in providing
them than the competition (Suri 1998). This is particularly relevant under
the conditions of uncertainty and fierce competition facing many
manufacturers today".
Point
6: "Bovet and Sheffi (1998) maintained that early consideration of all
supply chain variables in business decision making is critical to meeting the
needs of customers cost-efficiently. Ettlie (1997) contended that genuine integrated
product design includes the various disciplines and functions that span a
life cycle of new products and services, extending through recycling or
disposal of the product’s remnants. Repenning et al. (2001) asserted that
problems discovered late in the product development process often result in
the need for extra resources and deviation from standard development
procedure. This in turn leads to an inefficient firefighting mode of development
across the organization that can significantly hurt its capacity to create
valuable products".
Point
8: "Innovation success typically requires both process and product
champions. Process champions aggressively promote R&D as a legitimate and
necessary company investment and continually work toward upgrading NPD [new
product development] process quality. Product champions, as the name suggests,
enthusiastically shepherd particular projects through the various NPD stages,
often from new product concept to commercialization".
Point
9: "Product deletion and product retention decisions have significant
consequences for new product development. Retention of poorly selling
products may constitute a barrier to successful development and
commercialization of potentially profitable new products".
Point 12: "A majority of successful innovations is
developed through the collective efforts of individuals in new product development
teams (hereafter, NPD teams). NPD teams are organizational workgroups where
individuals from diverse personal and organizational backgrounds come
together for a limited (and usually, predetermined) time period and work in
close collaboration towards creating, designing, developing, and marketing a
new product (Pinto, 2002). The ultimate objective of all NPD teams is
superior marketplace success of the new product".
Point 14: "In line with the paramount interest in
knowledge creation, scholars are paying attention to new product development in
high technology firms. Product innovation has been recognized as in essence
for their renewal (Dougherty, 1992). These firms heavily rely on new product
introduction and commercialization to survive in intensive competitive environment
characterized by rapid product obsolesce and evolving customer needs. High
technology firms pursue growth mainly through new product development, which
in turn results in unprecedented levels of new product introductions".
|
Variable 4: Learn from new product
development practices
|
Point 2: "... is there a general consensus
as to what constitutes an NPD [new product development] best practice? This
question addresses whether there is a general set of best practices or
whether best practices are context- or industry-specific. ...... are NPD practitioners knowledgeable about
the status of NPD research and what is says as far as what constitutes an NPD
best practice? This question examines whether benchmarking results are
properly disseminated to the NPD practitioner community. That is, are
benchmarking results translating into actual NPD practice?".
Point 13: "Understanding and
explaining the processes and procedures through which knowledge is generated,
shared, disseminated, and utilized (that is, learned) in NPD teams is ..... critical for understanding new product success. While considerable research has focused
on the learning phenomenon in NPD teams (Meyers & Wilemon, 1989; Purser,
Pasmore, & Tenkasi, 1992), particularly on the dynamics of team
information-processing (Lynn, Reilly, & Akgu¨n, 2000; Moorman, 1995;
Moorman & Miner, 1997, 1998), the current state of knowledge about the
learning phenomenon in NPD teams needs to be expanded to include a greater
understanding of the process of learning and its effects on project outcomes".
Point 15: "Empirical studies by Nickell (1996) and Blundell, Griffith, and Reenen
(1999) have suggested a positive relationship between product market
competition and innovative output. Firms subject to increased product market
competition exhibit a higher propensity to adopt technological innovations.
Product market competition and prior adoptions are found to be important
determinants of technology adoptions as well. In more concentrated
industries, the adoption of technological innovations is maximized".
|
The next
step is to relate the cognitive map variables to make up a cognitive map on new
product development. The cognitive map and its explanation are presented in the
next section.
A cognitive map on new product development
and its interpretation
By
relating the four variables identified in Table 2, the writer comes up with a
cognitive map on new product development, as shown in Figure 1.
These
cognitive map variables, four of them
altogether, are related to constitute a systemic image of new product
development. The links in the cognitive map (re: Figure 1) indicate direction
of influences between variables. The + sign shows that an increase in one
variable leads to an increase in another variable while a -ve sign tells us
that in increase in one variable leads to a decrease in another variable. If there no signs shown on the arrows, that
means the influences can be positive or negative. For further information on new product
development, readers are referred to the Literature
on new product development Facebook page.
Concluding remarks
The
cognitive mapping exercise captures in one diagram some of the main variables
involved in new product development. The resultant cognitive map promotes an
exploratory way to study new product development in a holistic tone. The
experience of the cognitive mapping exercise is that it can be a quick,
efficient and entertaining way to explore a complex topic such as new product
development in Business Management. Finally, readers who are interested in cognitive
mapping should also find the article informative on this mapping topic.
Bibliography
1. Akgűn, A.E., G.S. Lynn and C. Vɪlmaz. 2006. "Learning process in new
product development teams and effects on product success: A socio-cognitive perspective"
Industrial Marketing Management 35, Elsevier:
210-224.
2.
Barczak, G. and K.B.
Kahn. 2012. "Identifying new product development best practice" Business Horizons 55, Elsevier: 293-305.
3. Chen, J., F. Damanpour and R.R. Reilly. 2010. "Understanding
antecedents of new product development speed:
A meta-analysis" Journal of Operations
Management 28, Elsevier: 17-33.
4.
Eden, C. and P.
Simpson. 1989. "SODA and cognitive mapping in practice", pp. 43-70,
in Rosenhead, J. (editor) Rational
Analysis for a Problematic World, Wiley, Chichester.
5.
Eden, C., C. Jones
and D. Sims. 1983. Messing about in
Problems: An informal structured approach to their identification and
management, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
6. Huges, G.D. and
D.C. Chafin. 1996. "Turning New Product Development into a Continuous Learning
Porcess" J Prod Innov Manag, Elsevier:
89-104.
7.
Literature on cognitive mapping Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. Ho (url address:
https://www.facebook.com/Literature-on-cognitive-mapping-800894476751355/).
8. Literature on
literature review Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. Ho (url address: https://www.facebook.com/literature.literaturereview/).
9. Literature on new
product developmentt Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. Ho (url address: https://www.facebook.com/Literature-on-new-product-development-1941744666106283/).
10. Managerial intellectual learning
Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. Ho (url address:
https://www.facebook.com/managerial.intellectual.learning/).
11. Open University. n.d. "Sign graph" Systems Thinking and Practice (T552): Diagramming, Open University,
U.K. (url address: http://systems.open.ac.uk/materials/T552/) [visited at April
10, 2017].
12. Suomala, P. 2005. "Life
cycle perspective in the measurement of new product development performance"
Managing Product Innovation Advances in Business Marketing and Purchasing 13, Elsevier: 523-700.
13. Tomkovick, C. and
C, Miller. 2000. "Perspective - Ring the Wind: Managing New Product Development
in an Age of Change" J Prod Innov Manag 17, Elsevier: 413-423
14. Tracey, M. 2004. "A Holistic Approach to New Product Development: New
Insights" The Journal of Supply Chain
Management Fall: 37-5.
15. Yang, J. and C.Y. Liu. 2006. "New product development:
An innovation diffusion perspective" Journal
of High Technology Management Research 17, Elsevier: 17-26.
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