Mind mapping the topic of international franchising
(IF)
Joseph Kim-keung Ho
Independent Trainer
Hong Kong, China
Abstract: The topic of international franchising
(IF) is a main one in global business management. This article makes use of the
mind mapping-based literature review (MMBLR) approach to render an image on the
knowledge structure of international franchising. The finding of the review
exercise is that its knowledge structure comprises four main themes, i.e., (a) Descriptions
of basic concepts, (b) Major underlying theories and thinking, (c) Main
research topics and issues, and (d) Major trends and issues related to
practices. There is also a set of key
concepts identified from the IF literature review. The article offers some academic and pedagogical values on the topics of
IF, literature review and the mind mapping-based literature review (MMBLR)
approach.
Key
words: Franchising, international
franchising (IF), literature review, mind map, the mind mapping-based
literature review (MMBLR) approach, global business management
Introduction
International
franchising (IF) is a main topic in global
business management. It is of academic and pedagogical interest to the writer
who has been a lecturer on global business management for some tertiary
education centres in Hong Kong. In this article, the writer presents his literature
review findings on IF using the mind mapping-based literature review (MMBLR)
approach. This approach was proposed by this writer this year and has been
employed to review the literature on a number of topics, such as supply chain
management, strategic management accounting and customer relationship
management (Ho, 2016). The MMBLR approach itself is not particularly novel
since mind mapping has been employed in literature review since its inception.
The overall aims of this exercise are to:
1. Render an image of the knowledge structure of
international franchising (IF) via the
application of the MMBLR approach;
2. Illustrate how the MMBLR approach can be
applied in literature review on an academic topic, such as IF.
The findings from this
literature review exercise offer academic and pedagogical values to those who
are interested in the topics of IF, literature review and the MMBLR approach.
Other than that, this exercise facilitates this writer’s intellectual learning
on these three topics. The next section makes a brief introduction on the MMBLR
approach. After that, an account of how it is applied to study IF is presented.
On mind mapping-based literature review
The mind mapping-based
literature review (MMBLR) approach was developed by this writer this year (Ho,
2016). It makes use of mind mapping as a complementary literature review
exercise (see the Literature on mind
mapping Facebook page and the Literature
on literature review Facebook page). The approach is made up of two steps.
Step 1 is a thematic analysis on the literature of the topic chosen for study.
Step 2 makes use of the findings from step 1 to produce a complementary mind
map. The MMBLR approach is a relatively straightforward and brief exercise. The
approach is not particularly original since the idea of using mind maps in
literature review has been well recognized in the mind mapping literature. The
MMBLR approach is also an interpretive exercise in the sense that different
reviewers with different research interest and intellectual background
inevitably will select different ideas, facts and findings in their thematic
analysis (i.e., step 1 of the MMBLR approach). Also, to conduct the approach,
the reviewer needs to perform a literature search beforehand. Apparently, what
a reviewer gathers from a literature search depends on what library facility,
including e-library, is available to the reviewer. The next section presents
the findings from the MMBLR approach step 1; afterward, a companion mind map is
provided based on the MMBLR approach step 1 findings.
Mind mapping-based literature review on international
franchising (IF): step 1 findings
Step 1 of the MMBLR approach is
a thematic analysis on the literature of the topic under investigation (Ho,
2016). In our case, this is the IF topic. The writer gathers some academic
articles from some universities’ e-libraries as well as via the Google Scholar.
With the academic articles collected, the writer conducted a literature review
on them to assemble a set of ideas, viewpoints, concepts and findings (called
points here). The points from the IF literature are then grouped into four
themes here. The key words in the quotations are bolded in order to highlight
the key concepts involved.
Theme 1: Descriptions of basic concepts
Point 1.1.
“…firms
that have developed and own a business
format franchise use a variety of organisational forms to transfer this
format to foreign markets… In addition
to selling franchises directly to host country individuals and businesses,
franchising firms also confer on an independent intermediary the contractual
responsibility to develop the local market by selling the franchise on or by
operating their own outlets. Less
commonly, owners of a franchise also take equity positions in foreign
operations, in the form of company-owned outlets – run by employee managers –
and as affiliated subsidiaries and joint ventures” (Burton, Cross and Rhodes,
2000);
Point 1.2.
“Since many of these relatively new-to-franchising markets are in
culturally distinct countries, master international franchising is among the
fastest growing methods of international expansion since it involves minimal
financial risk and a quick market entry strategy … Kaufmann and Dant …define master franchising as a form of
umbrella licensing agreement which differs from the standard unit or
location-level franchise in two ways: (1) it provides for the granting of an
exclusive territory extending beyond the trade area of a single unit, and (2)
it envisions from the outset the introduction of an additional layer of control
between store level management and the franchisor” (Dant and
Grünhagen, 2014);
Point 1.3.
“…franchising … can be
thought of as a marketing and distribution system involving an independent
businessperson (i.e., the franchisee) who buys
the rights to market the goods and / or services of another entity (i.e., the franchisor) according to the procedures and standards set out by the
franchisor in the franchise agreement and referenced ancillary documents
through a business operation known as a franchise. The franchisee is essentially paying a fee to the franchisor
for replicating the business of the franchisor” (Bellin, 2016);
Point 1.4.
“Business format franchising
is the most commonly studied form of franchise. In this format, franchisees also
receive various types of support, such as an operations manual, training and
on-site guidance. Franchisees have to pay for this support and they are obliged
to operate their businesses as prescribed by the franchisor” (Nijmeijer,
Fabbricotti and Huijsman, 2014);
Point 1.5.
“Franchising
consists of a contractual arrangement between two firms: the franchisor and the
franchisee. In this arrangement, the franchisee buys the right to market goods
or services under the franchisor’s brand name” (Nijmeijer,
Fabbricotti and Huijsman, 2014);
Point 1.6.
“Franchising has two characteristics
that distinguish it from other organizational forms such as equity joint
ventures and strategic alliances. First, franchising typically occurs in
businesses where there is a notable service
component that must be performed near customers. The result is that
service-providing outlets must be replicated and dispersed geographically. The
second key characteristic is that franchise contracts typically reflect a
unique allocation of responsibilities, decision rights, and profits between a centralized principal (the franchisor) and
decentralized agents (franchisees)” (Combs, Michael and Castrogiovanni, 2004);
Point 1.7.
“Modern day franchising, however, describes
a contractually vested inter-firm business relationship between two legally
independent entities involving a grantee (or franchisee) and a grantor (the franchisor),
where the franchisee pays the franchisor for rights to sell the franchisor’s
product or service using franchisor’s trademarks and its proprietary business
system in a pre-specified location for a pre-specified length of contract. A
distinction is usually proposed between the first to develop traditional
(or product and trade-name) franchising,
and the second, business format franchising” (Dant and Grünhagen,
2014);
Point 1.8.
“Historians have traced the franchising concept in a European
context to the Middle Ages when the Catholic Church granted franchises to tax
collectors; other scholars suggest these practices were preceded by the ancient
Chinese” (Bellin, 2016);
Point 1.9.
“Multi-unit
franchising is different from single-unit franchising in that franchisees
own, operate, or control more than one outlet” (Garg and Rasheed, 2003);
Point 1.10.
“Originating
from an Old French term ‘‘franche,’’ which literally means ‘‘to make or set free’’
or ‘‘to invest with a franchise or privilege’’ …., in Medieval times a
franchise was a privilege or right granted by sovereign powers (e.g., royalty,
churches, or governments) for a variety of activities (e.g., rights to build
roads, organize markets and fairs, collect taxes, maintain law and order). The
grantee was given monopoly rights for specific activities in a pre-specified
location for a given period of time, usually in exchange for a royalty payment
made to the grantor … Many of these
early vestiges of franchising persist even in modern franchise systems” (Dant and
Grünhagen, 2014);
Point 1.11.
“The former systems [traditional
(or product and trade-name) franchising]
are
typified by franchisees closely identifying themselves with single
manufacturers that practically served as dedicated distributors of the focal
manufacturers’ products ….., in business format franchising, …, the outlet itself is the product ...
In effect, business format franchisors
primarily sell a ‘‘way of doing business’’ together with a comprehensive
package of services and an operating manual that specifies details like
standards of quality control and
provisions of ongoing training, communication, and other operational
supports” (Dant and Grünhagen, 2014);
Theme 2:
Major underlying theories and thinking
Point 2.1.
“A
central assumption of agency theory
framework is that the interests of principals diverge from that of agents
…. As a result of this assumption, agents might misrepresent information
concerning their skills (i.e., the adverse selection problem) and effort (i.e.,
the moral hazard problem)… According to agency theory, these problems can be
mitigated through either residual claimancy, or monitoring” (Garg and Rasheed, 2003);
Point 2.2.
“An agency relationship exists whenever one party (the principal)
delegates authority to another (the agent). Because agents are assumed to be
self-interested and to possess goals that diverge from the principal’s goals,
the principal must expend resources (called agency costs) to insure that agents
act in their interests …. In chains, the firm can choose as their outlet
managers either employees who are paid a salary (and perhaps a bonus) or
franchisees that are granted the right to their outlet’s profits after
royalties and other expenses. In both cases, an agency problem is created
because the franchisor delegates local decision-making to outlet managers whose
interests are not perfectly aligned with the franchisor’s” (Combs,
Michael and Castrogiovanni, 2004);
Point 2.3.
“When firms are very young and
small, it is difficult to raise adequate capital for growth through traditional
financial markets (e.g., through public stock offerings) or from existing
operations, and it is difficult to develop the requisite managerial talent and
local market knowledge … Nevertheless, rapid
expansion may be essential to build the economies of scale in purchasing
and advertising necessary to compete effectively against more established firms
….. Thus, firms seek to access the capital and managerial resources that
franchisees provide when they build and manage outlets, even though returns
might be higher among firm-owned outlets” (Combs,
Michael and Castrogiovanni, 2004);
Point 2.4.
“… sustained and comparatively
faster innovative activity has often
been considered to be a strong correlate of firm growth …. More recently,
however, the replication, or exploitation, of an innovative business model has
also become an increasingly salient driver of firm growth” (Szulanski,
and Jensen, 2008);
Point 2.5.
“….the good franchising
system can be seen to be designed to provide a pretested formula for
success with the franchisor prescribing a complete plan, or format, for
operating the business covering step-by-step procedures for every aspect of the
business. Anticipating most management problems, the plan provides solutions
and approaches for management decisions likely to be confronted by franchisees.
For example, the good franchisor assists in site selection, site development,
and fit-out, providing computer hardware and software to franchisees at a
reasonable cost” (Bellin, 2016);
Point 2.6.
“…franchising creates opportunities for thousands
of budding entrepreneurs every year.
These franchisees are an important source
of innovation and local adaptation for franchisors” (Combs and
Ketchen Jr, 2003);
Point 2.7.
“…young, small, growing firms will
use franchising to fuel expansion
until they reach the critical mass needed to generate economies of scale. Once
economies have been achieved, rapid expansion is no longer necessary and a
firm’s focus will shift toward maximizing each outlet’s returns. Consequently, new franchising should cease
and the firm will try to purchase its most profitable franchised outlets.
Ultimately, a successful, mature firm’s outlets will be primarily company-owned”
(Combs and Ketchen Jr, 2003);
Point 2.8.
“Alon and McKee ….developed ‘‘a
macro environmental model’’ of international franchising. According to the
model, there are four factors important to a country analysis including: (1)
economic, (2) demographic, (3) distance, and (4) political dimensions” (Heung,
Zhang and Jiang, 2008);
Point 2.9.
“For companies with an established
network of wholly owned outlets, the cost
of extending distribution systems becomes marginal, making franchising a
potentially more cost effective method of business expansion than acquisition
or organic growth” (Heung,
Zhang and Jiang, 2008);
Point 2.10.
“Franchisees expect their
franchisors to exert effort to maintain trademark value via advertising and
promotions, as well as screening and policing other franchisees in the chain.
If this behavior is not observed by the franchisee, there is a moral-hazard problem on the
franchisor’s side. The franchisor must be given incentives to perform” (Maruyama
and Yamashita, 2010);
Point 2.11.
“From the perspective of entrepreneurship,
franchising is a vehicle for entering business ownership …. From the
perspective of marketing,
franchising is an important distribution channel ….From the perspective of
economics, franchising is a leading venue for understanding the structure of
contracts … From the perspective of strategic
management, franchising is an important organizational form (Combs,
Michael and Castrogiovanni, 2004);
Point 2.12.
“Good franchisors are
exceedingly selective: their goal is to select the highest quality franchisees
to replicate franchisor operations.… Good franchisors also want to know if the
people they recruit as potential franchisees understand the meaning and
obligations of being their own bosses” (Bellin,
2016);
Point 2.13.
“In the context of franchising, the agency premise is that there is likely to be greater goal
divergence between franchisors and hired managers than between franchisors and
franchisees. This is because franchisees have stronger incentives for
maximizing the present value of their franchises” (Garg and Rasheed, 2003);
Point 2.14.
“In the past two
decades, researchers have tried to explain international
franchising from different theoretical angles. International franchise
studies can be classified into five research streams: studies that focus on
franchise internationalisation compared to domestic operations …, the host
country conditions and the impact of
international franchising …, the propensity to franchise internationally
…, the cross-border franchisor–franchisee relationship …, and the choice of
international franchise governance modes” (Jell-Ojobor
and Windsperger, 2014);
Point 2.15.
“It
is increasingly recognized that the business model or system leveraged by a replicator is often a complex set of
interdependent activities ….Reproducing such a ‘recipe’ often means re-creating
the knowledge underpinning a system of complex, causally ambiguous, and
imperfectly understood productive processes at each new site” (Szulanski,
and Jensen, 2008);
Point 2.16.
“Most
franchising research has been grounded in either resource scarcity or agency
theory. Resource scarcity views franchising as a mechanism to ease
financial and managerial constraints on growth. Agency theory views franchising
as a mechanism for improving the alignment between firm- and outlet-level
incentives. Note that the two theories are not contradictory” (Combs,
Michael and Castrogiovanni, 2004);
Point 2.17.
“Overall,
five different streams of literature
can be identified regarding international franchising … The macro perspective is
concerned with the host country conditions and the impact of international
franchising……. The entry mode literature …is concerned with the choice between
corporate units on one side and franchising as an entry mode on the other side,
as franchisors enter new markets. …. A third research focus has differentiated
among different franchise options when entering a foreign market …Master franchise agreements (alongside
company ownership) have been the most common entry strategies for international
franchise systems, followed by joint venture franchising and conversion
franchising….…. Factors that appear as driving
forces for franchisors to expand internationally… include
past experience, age, and size of the existing franchise System … and managers’ desire to increase
profits … Finally, the cross-border franchisor-franchisee
relationship has been
investigated … which involves conflict and management challenges for international
franchisors” (Dant and Grünhagen, 2014);
Point 2.18.
“The advantages and risks of
global franchising to the franchisor are summarized by Stanworth et
al. … as follows: advantages include fewer
financial resources required; raw materials can be produced internally; less
susceptibility to political, economic and cultural risks; and franchisees are
more familiar with local laws, language, culture, business norms and practices.
Risks include possible difficulties in
repatriating royalties; protecting copyright and intellectual property;
policing quality standards; understanding laws, regulations, language and
business norms; and servicing franchisees, terminating contracts and local
limitations” (Heung,
Zhang and Jiang, 2008);
Point 2.19.
“There are two common
measures of outlet risk faced by the
franchisee. One is the measure of variation in sectoral sales per outlet … It
is assumed that the more volatile the sales per outlet in a chain, the greater
the risk borne by their franchisees. Another is the measure of failure rates ….
Lafontaine… has used the fraction of outlets
that were discontinued in a particular period of time as the measure of risk” (Maruyama and Yamashita, 2010);
Point 2.20.
“There is the problem of asymmetric information about
the profitability of the franchise concept between the franchisor and the
franchisee. Before deciding to sign a franchise contract, potential franchisees
will want to acquire information on product demand or receive some assurance
from the franchisor about the profitability of the franchise concept. Gallini and Lutz … identify an organizational remedy
for this problem. The franchisor can signal high profitability to the potential
franchisees by choosing to operate directly” (Maruyama and Yamashita, 2010);
Theme 3:
Main research topics and issues
Point 3.1.
“…franchise
research in the global arena has followed the geographic inroads made by the franchise industry. While Western Europe, North America,
Australia, and the highly developed economies of East Asia (primarily South
Korea and Japan) constituted the initial foreign expansion targets of U.S.
franchise firms …, ….A second wave of franchise expansion included the BRICS
economies …and adjacent areas like the former Eastern Bloc economies of Europe,
as well as Latin America beyond Brazil, including Ecuador … Most recently, …the
focus of franchisors has shifted yet again to the young markets of Vietnam, the
Philippines, and other Southeast Asian economies, as well as the African
continent” (Dant and Grünhagen, 2014);
Point 3.2.
“Agency theory
has been a popular perspective to investigate issues in franchising … Agency
theory arguments of franchising, however, focus on single-unit franchising (SUF): they are “uniformly couched in terms
of the local management of single-unit operations” …This preoccupation with
single unit franchising seems surprising, given that multi-unit franchising (MUF) is ubiquitous, especially in
location-based industries where franchising is most popular” (Garg and Rasheed, 2003);
Point 3.3.
“As franchising has increased its visibility and
impact on the business landscape, it has attracted the attention of a wide
variety of researchers from different academic backgrounds” (Combs, Michael and Castrogiovanni, 2004);
Point 3.4.
“Franchise practitioners
need information about the structures
and processes that can help them to be successful. Unfortunately, the
evidence base is fragmented, complex and heterogeneous in terms of theoretical
perspectives, methods and conceptualizations, providing only partial or even
confusing advice for practitioners” (Nijmeijer,
Fabbricotti and Huijsman, 2014);
Point 3.5.
“It is … clear that the design of franchise territories and
market areas has a significant influence on the performance – and even the
survival – of a [franchise] system. Yet neither the scholarly nor the practical
literature has given much attention to either the initial design of territories
nor to methods of restructuring territories and market areas that minimize
conflict with franchisees” (Cox and Mason, 2009);
Point 3.6.
“The
theory of international franchising begins in earnest from around the early
1990s…. a missing development is borrowing from international branding theory and applying it to international
franchising as a major theoretical platform” (Merrilees, 2014);
Point 3.7.
“When choosing to franchise, a firm surrenders significant control over new outlets bearing its
name and receives only a small percentage of franchised outlets’ revenues.
Thus, what leads organizations to franchise particular outlets, despite the
inherent downsides, has been the subject of considerable empirical research.
Unfortunately, little consensus has emerged” (Combs and
Ketchen Jr, 2003);
Theme 4:
Major trends and issues related to practices
Point 4.1.
“…. two other contemporary developments in
the franchising industry ….. Foremost there is a phenomenal increase in the
number of multiunit franchisees,
that is, franchisees that operate multiple units within a franchise system …The
second development has to do with the rapid
global expansion of the franchising enterprise. … From this vantage point,
developing economies like India, China, Brazil, and South Africa appear to
represent the greatest potential” (Dant and Grünhagen,
2014);
Point 4.2.
“…the real
boom in modern day business format franchising did not occur until the 1950s
with the founding of Burger King … and McDonald’s … More than ever before,
these pioneers … were responsible for bringing the assembly line uniformity to the fast food industry” (Dant and
Grünhagen, 2014);
Point 4.3.
“A legal environment to support
franchising is a necessary prerequisite for franchise sector development. There
must be an established framework of commercial law sufficient for the
complexities of modern business dealing and the institutions and machinery to
resolve disputes and enforce judgments, without which franchising is ‘‘not able
to function’’ (Binh and Terry, 2014);
Point 4.4.
“A range
of commercial services are also
necessary for the functioning of effective franchise systems (i.e.,
distribution and logistics networks, human resources, management expertise,
accounting, banking, consulting, and legal services). Such commercial
infrastructure services do not emerge fully formed [in developing countries]
and pose challenges for the operation of a sophisticated franchise model” (Binh and Terry, 2014);
Point 4.5.
“A visit to the franchise would indicate if franchisors are
striving to achieve excellent ongoing communications from and to franchisees as
in having a fully functional franchise
advisory council (FAC)—an evidence of mutual trust. We consider a FAC
critical to the ongoing success of any franchise group. The FAC should be
supported by regional franchise meetings run by the regional elected franchisee
representative” (Bellin, 2016);
Point 4.6.
“Despite
the positive expectations, failure rates
of new franchise initiatives are high. In the USA, it is estimated that
50–85% of these initiatives fail …. Moreover, there is significant variation in
the strategic and operational success of franchises” (Nijmeijer,
Fabbricotti and Huijsman, 2014);
Point 4.7.
“Franchised businesses operate on the
basis of granting individual franchisees trading
rights to serve territories or market areas on either an exclusive or a
non-exclusive basis. The design of these territories is generally undertaken
during the roll-out phase of the franchise. However, these territories and
market areas may become sub-optimal over time, necessitating restructuring.
However, if the franchisor has granted exclusive rights to a territory then
this is likely to involve a breach in the franchise contract. In cases where
existing franchisees do not have exclusive territories they may nevertheless
make a legal challenge to the creation of additional franchises on the grounds
of encroachment” (Cox and Mason, 2009);
Point 4.8.
“From
the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, international franchising grew dramatically….
The surge in international activity by US-based franchisors can be explained,
in part, by characteristics internal to
the franchisor. Such characteristics include the operating life span of the
franchisor, the franchisor’s size and type, unit start-up costs for each
individual franchise and the franchisor’s headquarters location” (Huszagh,
Huszagh and McIntyre, 1992);
Point 4.9.
“In recent decades, the number
of franchises in the world has increased considerably …. It is expected that
franchising delivers a better financial performance, a more supportive working
environment and/or higher survival chances than alternative organizational
forms” (Nijmeijer, Fabbricotti and Huijsman, 2014);
Point 4.10.
“Most state-owned hotels [in PRC] are looking for
ways to expand and deal with the increasing competition. One way to survive is
to join an international franchise
operation” (Heung,
Zhang and Jiang, 2008);
Point 4.11.
“One of
the most enduring trends to have emerged in international business over the
last two decades has been the growth in the internationalisation of services….. In conjunction, the rate at
which firms have adopted one particular business vehicle – the international
franchise – to effect the downstream delivery of services into foreign markets
has also accelerated dramatically over this period” (Burton, Cross and Rhodes,
2000);
Point 4.12.
“Through the international expansion of
foreign franchise systems, developing
countries are introduced not only to new products, services, and
technologies but also to training, operational and business formats, and
ongoing support in relation to those systems” (Binh and Terry, 2014);
Point 4.13.
“While business
format franchising is the industry standard for developed countries, it
remains an aspiration for many developing countries. Despite the attraction for
developing countries of systems, training, and support and despite the economic
and regulatory infrastructure being in place for the development of business
format franchising, a range of commercial
and socio-cultural factors may conspire to prevent its full expression” (Binh and Terry, 2014);
Each of the four themes has a
set of associated points (i.e., idea, viewpoints, concepts and findings).
Together they provide an organized way to comprehend the knowledge structure of
the international franchising (IF) topic. The bolded key words in the quotation
reveal, based on the writer’s intellectual judgement, the key concepts examined
in the IF literature. The referencing indicated on the points identified
informs the readers where to find the academic articles to learn more about the
details on these points; readers are also referred to the Literature on franchising Facebook page. The process of conducting
the thematic analysis is an exploratory as well as synthetic learning endeavour
on the topic’s literature. Once the structure of the themes, sub-themes[1]
and their associated points are finalized, the reviewer is in a position to
move forward to step 2 of the MMBLR approach. The MMBLR approach step 2
finding, i.e., a companion mind map on IF, is presented in the next section.
Mind mapping-based literature review on IF: step 2
(mind mapping) output
By adopting the findings from
the MMBLR approach step 1 on international franchising (IF), the writer
constructs a companion mind map shown as Figure 1.
Referring to the mind map on IF,
the topic label is shown right at the centre of the map as a large blob. Four
main branches are attached to it, corresponding to the four themes identified
in the thematic analysis. The links and ending nodes with key phrases represent
the points from the thematic analysis. The key phrases have also been bolded in
the quotations provided in the thematic analysis. As a whole, the mind map
renders an image of the knowledge structure on IF based on the thematic
analysis findings. Constructing the mind map is part of the learning process on
literature review. The mind mapping process is speedy and entertaining. The
resultant mind map also serves as a useful presentation and teaching material.
This mind mapping experience confirms the writer’s previous experience using on
the MMBLR approach (Ho, 2016). Readers are also referred to the Literature on literature review Facebook
page and the Literature on mind
mapping Facebook page for additional information on these two topics.
Concluding remarks
The MMBLR approach to study IF
provided here is mainly for its practice illustration as its procedures have
been refined via a number of its employment on an array of topics (Ho, 2016).
No major additional MMBLR steps nor notions have been introduced in this
article. In this respect, the exercise reported here primarily offers some
pedagogical value as well as some systematic and stimulated learning on international
franchising (IF) in global business management. Nevertheless, the thematic
findings and the image of the knowledge structure on IF in the form of a mind
map should also be of academic value to those who research on this topic.
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J.K.K. 2016. Mind mapping for literature
review – a ebook, Joseph KK Ho publication folder October 7 (url address: http://josephkkho.blogspot.hk/2016/10/mind-mapping-for-literature-review-ebook.html).
11. Huszagh,
S.M., F.W. Huszagh and F.S. McIntyre. 1992. “International Franchising in the
Context of Competitive Strategy and the Theory of the Firm” International Marketing Review 9(5), MCB
University Press: 5-18.
12. Jell-Ojobor, M. and J. Windsperger. 2014. “The Choice of Governance
Modes of International Franchise Firms – Development of an Integrative Model” Journal of International Management 20,
Elsevier; 153-187.
13. Literature on franchising
Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. (url
address: https://www.facebook.com/literature.franchising/).
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Literature on literature review Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. Ho (url address:
https://www.facebook.com/literature.literaturereview/).
15.
Literature on mind mapping Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. Ho (url address: https://www.facebook.com/literature.mind.mapping/).
16. Maruyama, M. and Y. Yamashita. 2010.”The logic of franchise
contracts: Empirical results of Japan” Japan
and the World Economy 22, Elsevier: 183-192.
17. Merrilees, B. 2014. “International
Franchising: Evolution of Theory and Practice” Journal of Marketing Channels 21, Routledge: 133-142.
18. Nijmeijer, K., I.N. Fabbricotti and R. Huijsman. 2014. “Making
Franchising Work: A Framework Based on a Systematic Review” International Journal of Management Review
16: 62-83.
19. Szulanski, G. and R.J. Jensen. 2008. “Growing through
copying: The negative consequences of innovation on franchise network growth” Research Policy 37, Elsevier: 1732-1741.
Pdf version at: https://www.academia.edu/30642695/Mind_mapping_the_topic_of_international_franchising_IF_
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