Cognitive mapping the topic of urbanization

Cognitive mapping the topic of urbanization

Joseph Kim-keung Ho

Independent Trainer

Hong Kong, China

Abstract: The topic of urbanization in the subject of Urban Geography is complex. By making use of the cognitive mapping technique to conduct a brief literature review on the urbanization topic, the writer renders a systemic image on the topic of urbanization. The result of the study, in the form of a cognitive map on urbanization, should be useful to those who are interested in the topics of cognitive mapping, literature review and urbanization.

Key words: Urbanization, cognitive mapping, literature review

Introduction

As a topic in Urban Geography, urbanization is complex. It is thus useful to employ some learning tool to conduct its study, notably for literature review purpose. For a teacher in research methods, systems thinking and management, the writer is specifically interested in finding out how the cognitive mapping technique can be employed to go through a literature review on  urbanization. This literature review exercise is taken up and reported in this article.

On the cognitive mapping exercise for literature review

Literature review is an important intellectual learning exercise, and not just for doing final year dissertation projects for tertiary education students. On these two topics of intellectual learning and literature review, the writer has compiled some e-learning resources. They are the Managerial intellectual learning Facebook page and the Literature on literature review Facebook page. Conducting literature review with the cognitive mapping technique is not novel in the cognitive mapping literature, see Eden and Simpson (1989), Eden, Jones and Sims (1983), Open University (n.d) and the Literature on cognitive mapping Facebook page. In this article, the specific steps involved in the cognitive mapping exercise are as follows:

Step 1: gather some main points from a number of academic journal articles on Urbanization. This result in the production of a table (Table 1) with the main points and associated references.

Step 2: consolidate  the main points from Table 1 to come up with a table listing the cognitive map variables (re: Table 2).

Step 3: link up the cognitive  map variables in a plausible way to produce a cognitive map (re: Figure 1) on the topic under review.

The next section applies these three steps to produce a cognitive map on urbanization.

Descriptions of cognitive map variables on the urbanization topic

From the reading of some academic articles on Urbanization, a number of main points (e.g., viewpoints, concepts and empirical findings) were gathered by the  writer. They are shown in Table 1 with explicit referencing on the points.

Table 1: Main points from the urbanization literature and referencing

Main points from the urbanization literature	Referencing
Point 1: "Historically, urbanization has been a necessary factor for a country to realize modernization. However, urbanization can be broadly categorized into two types: one is harmonious or sustainable, and the other is discordant or non-sustainable. The former means not only an increase in the ratio of urban population, but also a balanced development across various sectors and regions, giving rise to economic growth, full employment, healthy cities and prosperous villages. The latter is characterized by metropolitan symptoms such as urban slums, traffic congestion, pollution and crime, and a widened gap between urban and rural areas with the clear implication of too many and too high economic, social and environmental costs".	Sha, K., T. Song, X. Qi and N. Luo. 2006. "Rethinking China's urbanization: an institutional innovation perspective" Building Research & Information 34(6): 573-583.
Point 2: "The way in which a country deals with its urbanization can mean the difference between the success and failure of its sustainable development. Economic, social and environmental pressures produced by rapid urbanization are particularly keen in developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America, which have become an increasing concern in recent years. That is why ‘rapid urbanization’ was taken as the theme of 14th breakout session at the 2005 World Sustainable Building (SB05Tokyo) where a number of authors, including Miranda (2005), Gomez Tagle Morales (2005), Cesar da Costa (2005), Sha (2005), Biermann (2005), Lai (2005) and Morley (2005), focused their attention on the solutions to problems of rapid populating cities in developing countries and the validity of lessons from the developed world for these cities".	Sha, K., T. Song, X. Qi and N. Luo. 2006. "Rethinking China's urbanization: an institutional innovation perspective" Building Research & Information 34(6): 573-583.
Point 3: "The issues of China’s development could be summarized as an agricultural country pursuing industrialization with an expanding population and deficient resources (Wen, 1999). Consequently, the environment in which China implements its urbanization programme is substantially distinct from developed countries".	Sha, K., T. Song, X. Qi and N. Luo. 2006. "Rethinking China's urbanization: an institutional innovation perspective" Building Research & Information 34(6): 573-583.
Point 4: "It is generally acknowledged that the conditions under which the majority of the newly urbanizing populations are living are unsatisfactory and that ‘poverty’ is a major problem requiring urgent attention. It is, furthermore, widely acknowledged that ‘poverty’ is not merely a matter of lack of money. Rather this relates to the precariousness of so many lives today, the ignorance of billions who are changing their lifestyles to anticipate the consequence of their actions and their lack of political power to negotiate with those forces encouraging or coercing their lifestyle changes".	Atkinson, A. 2004. "Urbanization in a neo-liberal world" City 8(1): 89-108.
Point 5: "....it is widely acknowledged that current forms of development, including present forms of urbanization in the North as well as the South, are not environmentally sustainable in the longer run. Indeed many areas are already manifesting environmental damage resulting not only in ecological impoverishment but also adding to the precariousness of life for the poor".	Atkinson, A. 2004. "Urbanization in a neo-liberal world" City 8(1): 89-108.
Point 6: "Rapid urbanization evident today throughout the South is .... virtually nowhere associated with industrialization. Indeed, it is not associated with any significant growth in ‘formal’ employment of any kind. Currently only around 10% of people entering the workforce (youth, women, etc.) throughout sub-Saharan Africa and even in Latin America are finding formal employment".	Atkinson, A. 2004. "Urbanization in a neo-liberal world" City 8(1): 89-108.
Point 7: "Pre-colonial African urbanisation is generally attributed to the rise of agriculture, regional and long distance trade, and powerful religious and administrative centres created by traditional leaders (Coquery-Vidrocitch 1991). During the pre-colonial period, the trans-Saharan trade routes resulted in towns such as Salaga and Bono Manso emerging as important trading centres in the north of present-day Ghana (Anderson and Rathbone 2000). Trading was associated with the development of farming, livestock rearing, fishing, salt-making, handicrafts and gold mining. As well as becoming centres of trade, political power and administration, these towns were also central to military operations in times of war".	Gough, K.V. and P.W.K. Yankson. 2012. "Exploring the connections: mining and urbanisation in Ghana" Journal of Contemporary African Studies 30(4): 651-668.
Point 8: "During the colonial period, urbanisation occurred particularly along the coast as the emphasis on maritime trade increased. Cape Coast thrived as the initial capital of the Gold Coast and was the centre of trade, first for slaves and subsequently for the export of mineral and agricultural resources. Urban settlements also grew rapidly in the southern forest zone (nowadays the Ashanti, Eastern, Western and Brong Ahafo regions), linked to the exploitation of minerals alongside the expansion of cocoa farming and other cash crops. The building of the railways also contributed to urbanisation by enhancing the movement of goods and people. The focus of the European colonisers on the exporting of goods via the sea resulted in the northern towns which had developed during pre-colonial times being overlooked and declining".	Gough, K.V. and P.W.K. Yankson. 2012. "Exploring the connections: mining and urbanisation in Ghana" Journal of Contemporary African Studies 30(4): 651-668.
Point 9: "According to United Nations projections (United Nations, 2010), more than half of the world’s population lived in urban areas by the end of 2010. If current trends continue, the urban share of the global population will reach 68% by 2050. For instance, China’s urban population is expected to increase from 636 million to 1037 million between 2010 and 2050 (United Nations, 2010). Similarly, the McKinsey Global Institute (2009) has forecasted the expansion of China’s urban population to 926 million in 2025, reaching one billion by 2030 – an annual growth rate of nearly 20 million. Such growth rates will be consistent with those of the past three decades".	Qiu Zhang, H., J.M. Luo, Q. Xiao and B.D. Guillet. 2013. "The impact of urbanization on hotel development: Evidence from Guangdong Province in China" International Journal of Hospitality Management 34, Elsevier: 92-98.
Point 10: "From an economic perspective, increases in the percentage of the population living in urban areas are usually considered to be a natural by-product of modernization and industrialization (Bradshaw and Frazer, 1989). When economic activities are clustered in small geographic spaces, firms have access to a larger labor pool and are in closer proximity to customers and suppliers, with the benefit that intra-industry specialization is encouraged (Ciccone and Hall, 1996; Becker, 2007). Kastarlak (1971) pointed out that the degree of urbanization apparently plays a major role in creating a tourism center since the attraction and facility mix correlates with the population density".	Qiu Zhang, H., J.M. Luo, Q. Xiao and B.D. Guillet. 2013. "The impact of urbanization on hotel development: Evidence from Guangdong Province in China" International Journal of Hospitality Management 34, Elsevier: 92-98.
Point 11: "Urbanization occurs naturally from individual and corporate efforts to reduce time and expense in commuting and transportation while improving opportunities for jobs, education, housing, and transportation. Living in cities permits individuals and families to take advantage of the opportunities of proximity, diversity, and marketplace competition. According to United Nations (2010), different countries have their own definition of urbanization. Because of national differences in the characteristics that distinguish urban from rural areas, the distinction between the urban and the rural population is not yet amenable to a single definition that would be applicable to all countries or, for the most part, even to the countries within a region".	Qiu Zhang, H., J.M. Luo, Q. Xiao and B.D. Guillet. 2013. "The impact of urbanization on hotel development: Evidence from Guangdong Province in China" International Journal of Hospitality Management 34, Elsevier: 92-98.
Point 12: "The definition of urbanization can describe a specific condition at a set time, i.e. the proportion of total population or area in cities or towns, or the term can describe the increase of this proportion over time. So the term urbanization can represent the level of urban relative to overall population, or it can represent the rate at which the urban proportion is increasing (United Nations, 2010)".	Qiu Zhang, H., J.M. Luo, Q. Xiao and B.D. Guillet. 2013. "The impact of urbanization on hotel development: Evidence from Guangdong Province in China" International Journal of Hospitality Management 34, Elsevier: 92-98.
Point 13: "In recent years, we have seen a remarkable development in the conception and (re) design of knowledge locations, which may be dubbed as an “urban turn.” Many sub-urban and (semi) secluded knowledge hotspots (campuses, science parks, technology parks, etc.) are being “urbanized:” new functions are being added, such as housing, amenities, cultural facilities, and education (Carvalho, 2013). From mono-functional business and research-oriented places, many of those areas are being transformed into more diverse, open, and urban environments. Moreover, and in parallel, new types of innovation hotspots are designed and embedded in the urban fabric from the early start".	Van Winden, W. and L. Carvalho. 2016. "Urbanize or Perish? Assessing the Urbanization of Knowledge Locations in Europe" Journal of Urban Technology 23(1): 53-70.
Point 14: "... the boundaries of (small and large) firms have become more porous, heightening the relevance of environments that facilitate networking, face-to-face exchange, communication, and even serendipity (Storper and Venables, 2004). To cope with these challenges, many new generation knowledge locations have been deliberately planned in urban settings and/or envisioned to recreate denser, innovation-friendly environments within their boundaries. For example, instead of conventional monolithic office blocks, many locations have architectural and ergonomic features conducive to interaction, such as dense and open building designs, short walking distances, and the provision of several shared working, innovation piloting, and leisure facilities".	Van Winden, W. and L. Carvalho. 2016. "Urbanize or Perish? Assessing the Urbanization of Knowledge Locations in Europe" Journal of Urban Technology 23(1): 53-70.
Point 15: "A related point pushing for the urbanization of knowledge locations is the shifting of work-life balance (Florida, 2008). Work and life have increasing become mingled, and social interaction with colleagues is considered important (DeFraine et al., 2014). This lifestyle is facilitated in a lively environment that offers adequate amenities and facilities. Other empirical studies support that growing appreciation of urban lifestyles. Larger and diverse metropolitan areas are growing faster, in terms of population, than smaller and medium sized towns both in Europe and the United States (EC, 2010, 2013; Frey, 2014). Moreover, the mixed “live-work” urban cores are growing faster than metropolitan regions".	Van Winden, W. and L. Carvalho. 2016. "Urbanize or Perish? Assessing the Urbanization of Knowledge Locations in Europe" Journal of Urban Technology 23(1): 53-70.
Point 16: "Urbanization plays a crucial role in the economic growth of a nation.1 There is a strong correlation between urbanization and economic growth. In other words, fast urban growth does translate into fast GDP growth and urbanization generally occurs with modernization and industrialization".	Tripathi, S. and K. Mahey. 2016. "Urbanization and economic growth in Punjab (India): an empirical analysis" Urban Research & Practice, Routledge (DOI: 10.1080/17535069.2016.1227875).
Point 17: "Urbanization in India is happening at a higher rate; urban population in India increased from 27.81% in 2001 to 31.16% in 2011. As per 2011 Census, the top five urbanized states are Tamil Nadu (54.4%), Maharashtra (46.2%), Gujarat (40.3%), Punjab (39.5%), and Karnataka (36.02%). The number of urban agglomeration in India increased from 384 in 2001 to 475 in 2011.2 Top five large agglomerations in India are Mumbai (1.84 crore), Delhi (1.63 crore), Kolkata (1.40 crore), Chennai (86.54 lakh), Bangalore (85.20 lakh). Most importantly, cities and towns of India constitute the world’s second largest urban system, and over 50% of the country’s gross domestic product comes from these cities and towns".	Tripathi, S. and K. Mahey. 2016. "Urbanization and economic growth in Punjab (India): an empirical analysis" Urban Research & Practice, Routledge (DOI: 10.1080/17535069.2016.1227875).
Point 18: "The centrality that cities once enjoyed and the dominant agglomerative tendencies of previous forms of urbanization have faded. Hence, existing urban theories and models of governance have to be discarded and new understandings launched. Only in this way, ..... can we grasp the city of fragmented spatialities, multiple flows, polyglot socialities, dynamic networks, and spatial and temporal openness".	Beauregard, R.A. 2006. "The radical break in late twentieth-century urbanization" Area 38(2): 218-220.
Point 19: "Traditional approaches to urbanization provide little conceptual space for an underlying rupture. They cast urbanization as a universal and relentless process that ends only when a country is fully urbanized (Tisdale 1942). The forces of concentration wax and wane or unfold unevenly across the landscape, but they never cease or disappear".	Beauregard, R.A. 2006. "The radical break in late twentieth-century urbanization" Area 38(2): 218-220.
Point 20: "Eric Lampard (1965) argues for urbanization’s historical discreteness. For him, the process that most observers study is one that began in the last half of the eighteenth century and ended in the 1920s. This is the urbanization of the Industrial Revolution. It produced large cities – dense, spatial concentrations of economic activity, workers and households – and began when fertility rates rose dramatically and technology enabled the production and control of large amounts of inanimate energy. Industrial urbanization ended when these technologies reached their limits".	Beauregard, R.A. 2006. "The radical break in late twentieth-century urbanization" Area 38(2): 218-220.

With a set of main points collected, the writer produces a set of cognitive map variables. These variables are informed by the set of main points from Table 1. These variables are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Cognitive map variables based on Table 1

Cognitive map variables	Literature review points
Variable 1: Drivers of interest in urbanization	Point 1: "Historically, urbanization has been a necessary factor for a country to realize modernization. However, urbanization can be broadly categorized into two types: one is harmonious or sustainable, and the other is discordant or non-sustainable. The former means not only an increase in the ratio of urban population, but also a balanced development across various sectors and regions, giving rise to economic growth, full employment, healthy cities and prosperous villages. The latter is characterized by metropolitan symptoms such as urban slums, traffic congestion, pollution and crime, and a widened gap between urban and rural areas with the clear implication of too many and too high economic, social and environmental costs". Point 7: "Pre-colonial African urbanisation is generally attributed to the rise of agriculture, regional and long distance trade, and powerful religious and administrative centres created by traditional leaders (Coquery-Vidrocitch 1991). During the pre-colonial period, the trans-Saharan trade routes resulted in towns such as Salaga and Bono Manso emerging as important trading centres in the north of present-day Ghana (Anderson and Rathbone 2000). Trading was associated with the development of farming, livestock rearing, fishing, salt-making, handicrafts and gold mining. As well as becoming centres of trade, political power and administration, these towns were also central to military operations in times of war". Point 8: "During the colonial period, urbanisation occurred particularly along the coast as the emphasis on maritime trade increased. Cape Coast thrived as the initial capital of the Gold Coast and was the centre of trade, first for slaves and subsequently for the export of mineral and agricultural resources. Urban settlements also grew rapidly in the southern forest zone (nowadays the Ashanti, Eastern, Western and Brong Ahafo regions), linked to the exploitation of minerals alongside the expansion of cocoa farming and other cash crops. The building of the railways also contributed to urbanisation by enhancing the movement of goods and people. The focus of the European colonisers on the exporting of goods via the sea resulted in the northern towns which had developed during pre-colonial times being overlooked and declining". Point 9: "According to United Nations projections (United Nations, 2010), more than half of the world’s population lived in urban areas by the end of 2010. If current trends continue, the urban share of the global population will reach 68% by 2050. For instance, China’s urban population is expected to increase from 636 million to 1037 million between 2010 and 2050 (United Nations, 2010). Similarly, the McKinsey Global Institute (2009) has forecasted the expansion of China’s urban population to 926 million in 2025, reaching one billion by 2030 – an annual growth rate of nearly 20 million. Such growth rates will be consistent with those of the past three decades". Point 17: "Urbanization in India is happening at a higher rate; urban population in India increased from 27.81% in 2001 to 31.16% in 2011. As per 2011 Census, the top five urbanized states are Tamil Nadu (54.4%), Maharashtra (46.2%), Gujarat (40.3%), Punjab (39.5%), and Karnataka (36.02%). The number of urban agglomeration in India increased from 384 in 2001 to 475 in 2011.2 Top five large agglomerations in India are Mumbai (1.84 crore), Delhi (1.63 crore), Kolkata (1.40 crore), Chennai (86.54 lakh), Bangalore (85.20 lakh). Most importantly, cities and towns of India constitute the world’s second largest urban system, and over 50% of the country’s gross domestic product comes from these cities and towns".
Variable 2: Improve intellectual understanding of urbanization	Point 10: "From an economic perspective, increases in the percentage of the population living in urban areas are usually considered to be a natural by-product of modernization and industrialization (Bradshaw and Frazer, 1989). When economic activities are clustered in small geographic spaces, firms have access to a larger labor pool and are in closer proximity to customers and suppliers, with the benefit that intra-industry specialization is encouraged (Ciccone and Hall, 1996; Becker, 2007). Kastarlak (1971) pointed out that the degree of urbanization apparently plays a major role in creating a tourism center since the attraction and facility mix correlates with the population density". Point 11: "Urbanization occurs naturally from individual and corporate efforts to reduce time and expense in commuting and transportation while improving opportunities for jobs, education, housing, and transportation. Living in cities permits individuals and families to take advantage of the opportunities of proximity, diversity, and marketplace competition. According to United Nations (2010), different countries have their own definition of urbanization. Because of national differences in the characteristics that distinguish urban from rural areas, the distinction between the urban and the rural population is not yet amenable to a single definition that would be applicable to all countries or, for the most part, even to the countries within a region". Point 12: "The definition of urbanization can describe a specific condition at a set time, i.e. the proportion of total population or area in cities or towns, or the term can describe the increase of this proportion over time. So the term urbanization can represent the level of urban relative to overall population, or it can represent the rate at which the urban proportion is increasing (United Nations, 2010)". Point 13: "In recent years, we have seen a remarkable development in the conception and (re) design of knowledge locations, which may be dubbed as an “urban turn.” Many sub-urban and (semi) secluded knowledge hotspots (campuses, science parks, technology parks, etc.) are being “urbanized:” new functions are being added, such as housing, amenities, cultural facilities, and education (Carvalho, 2013). From mono-functional business and research-oriented places, many of those areas are being transformed into more diverse, open, and urban environments. Moreover, and in parallel, new types of innovation hotspots are designed and embedded in the urban fabric from the early start". Point 16: "Urbanization plays a crucial role in the economic growth of a nation.1 There is a strong correlation between urbanization and economic growth. In other words, fast urban growth does translate into fast GDP growth and urbanization generally occurs with modernization and industrialization". Point 18: "The centrality that cities once enjoyed and the dominant agglomerative tendencies of previous forms of urbanization have faded. Hence, existing urban theories and models of governance have to be discarded and new understandings launched. Only in this way, ..... can we grasp the city of fragmented spatialities, multiple flows, polyglot socialities, dynamic networks, and spatial and temporal openness". Point 19: "Traditional approaches to urbanization provide little conceptual space for an underlying rupture. They cast urbanization as a universal and relentless process that ends only when a country is fully urbanized (Tisdale 1942). The forces of concentration wax and wane or unfold unevenly across the landscape, but they never cease or disappear". Point 20: "Eric Lampard (1965) argues for urbanization’s historical discreteness. For him, the process that most observers study is one that began in the last half of the eighteenth century and ended in the 1920s. This is the urbanization of the Industrial Revolution. It produced large cities – dense, spatial concentrations of economic activity, workers and households – and began when fertility rates rose dramatically and technology enabled the production and control of large amounts of inanimate energy. Industrial urbanization ended when these technologies reached their limits".
Variable 3: Effective urbanization practices	Point 2: "The way in which a country deals with its urbanization can mean the difference between the success and failure of its sustainable development. Economic, social and environmental pressures produced by rapid urbanization are particularly keen in developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America, which have become an increasing concern in recent years. That is why ‘rapid urbanization’ was taken as the theme of 14th breakout session at the 2005 World Sustainable Building (SB05Tokyo) where a number of authors, including Miranda (2005), Gomez Tagle Morales (2005), Cesar da Costa (2005), Sha (2005), Biermann (2005), Lai (2005) and Morley (2005), focused their attention on the solutions to problems of rapid populating cities in developing countries and the validity of lessons from the developed world for these cities". Point 5: "....it is widely acknowledged that current forms of development, including present forms of urbanization in the North as well as the South, are not environmentally sustainable in the longer run. Indeed many areas are already manifesting environmental damage resulting not only in ecological impoverishment but also adding to the precariousness of life for the poor". Point 14: "... the boundaries of (small and large) firms have become more porous, heightening the relevance of environments that facilitate networking, face-to-face exchange, communication, and even serendipity (Storper and Venables, 2004). To cope with these challenges, many new generation knowledge locations have been deliberately planned in urban settings and/or envisioned to recreate denser, innovation-friendly environments within their boundaries. For example, instead of conventional monolithic office blocks, many locations have architectural and ergonomic features conducive to interaction, such as dense and open building designs, short walking distances, and the provision of several shared working, innovation piloting, and leisure facilities". Point 15: "A related point pushing for the urbanization of knowledge locations is the shifting of work-life balance (Florida, 2008). Work and life have increasing become mingled, and social interaction with colleagues is considered important (DeFraine et al., 2014). This lifestyle is facilitated in a lively environment that offers adequate amenities and facilities. Other empirical studies support that growing appreciation of urban lifestyles. Larger and diverse metropolitan areas are growing faster, in terms of population, than smaller and medium sized towns both in Europe and the United States (EC, 2010, 2013; Frey, 2014). Moreover, the mixed “live-work” urban cores are growing faster than metropolitan regions".
Variable 4: Learn from urbanization practices	Point 3: "The issues of China’s development could be summarized as an agricultural country pursuing industrialization with an expanding population and deficient resources (Wen, 1999). Consequently, the environment in which China implements its urbanization programme is substantially distinct from developed countries". Point 4: "It is generally acknowledged that the conditions under which the majority of the newly urbanizing populations are living are unsatisfactory and that ‘poverty’ is a major problem requiring urgent attention. It is, furthermore, widely acknowledged that ‘poverty’ is not merely a matter of lack of money. Rather this relates to the precariousness of so many lives today, the ignorance of billions who are changing their lifestyles to anticipate the consequence of their actions and their lack of political power to negotiate with those forces encouraging or coercing their lifestyle changes". Point 6: "Rapid urbanization evident today throughout the South is .... virtually nowhere associated with industrialization. Indeed, it is not associated with any significant growth in ‘formal’ employment of any kind. Currently only around 10% of people entering the workforce (youth, women, etc.) throughout sub-Saharan Africa and even in Latin America are finding formal employment".

The next step is to relate the cognitive map variables to make up a cognitive map on urbanization. The cognitive map and its explanation are presented in the next section.

A cognitive map on urbanization and its interpretation

By relating the four variables identified in Table 2, the writer comes up with a cognitive map on urbanization, as shown in Figure 1.

These cognitive  map variables, four of them altogether, are related to constitute a systemic image of urbanization. The links in the cognitive map (re: Figure 1) indicate direction of influences between variables. The + sign shows that an increase in one variable leads to an increase in another variable while a -ve sign tells us that in increase in one variable leads to a decrease in another variable.  If there no signs shown on the arrows, that means the influences can be positive or negative.  For further information on urbanization, readers are referred to the Literature on urban geography Facebook page.

Concluding remarks

The cognitive mapping exercise captures in one diagram some of the main variables involved in urbanization. The resultant cognitive map promotes an exploratory way to study urbanization in a holistic tone. The experience of the cognitive mapping exercise is that it can be a quick, efficient and entertaining way to explore a complex topic such as urbanization in Urban Geography. Finally, readers who are interested in cognitive mapping should also find the article informative on this mapping topic.

Bibliography

1.      Atkinson, A. 2004. "Urbanization in a neo-liberal world" City 8(1): 89-108.

2.      Beauregard, R.A. 2006. "The radical break in late twentieth-century urbanization" Area 38(2): 218-220.

3.      Eden, C. and P. Simpson. 1989. "SODA and cognitive mapping in practice", pp. 43-70, in Rosenhead, J. (editor) Rational Analysis for a Problematic World, Wiley, Chichester.

4.      Eden, C., C. Jones and D. Sims. 1983. Messing about in Problems: An informal structured approach to their identification and management, Pergamon Press, Oxford.

5.      Gough, K.V. and P.W.K. Yankson. 2012. "Exploring the connections: mining and urbanisation in Ghana" Journal of Contemporary African Studies 30(4): 651-668.

6.      Literature on cognitive mapping Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. Ho (url address: https://www.facebook.com/Literature-on-cognitive-mapping-800894476751355/).

7.      Literature on literature review Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. Ho (url address: https://www.facebook.com/literature.literaturereview/).

8.      Literature on urban geography Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. Ho (url address: https://www.facebook.com/Literature-on-urban-geography-327662957646788/).

9.      Managerial intellectual learning Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. Ho (url address: https://www.facebook.com/managerial.intellectual.learning/).

10. Open University. n.d. "Sign graph" Systems Thinking and Practice (T552): Diagramming, Open University, U.K. (url address: http://systems.open.ac.uk/materials/T552/) [visited at April 10, 2017].

11. Qiu Zhang, H., J.M. Luo, Q. Xiao and B.D. Guillet. 2013. "The impact of urbanization on hotel development: Evidence from Guangdong Province in China" International Journal of Hospitality Management 34, Elsevier: 92-98.

12. Sha, K., T. Song, X. Qi and N. Luo. 2006. "Rethinking China's urbanization: an institutional innovation perspective" Building Research & Information 34(6): 573-583.

13. Tripathi, S. and K. Mahey. 2016. "Urbanization and economic growth in Punjab (India): an empirical analysis" Urban Research & Practice, Routledge (DOI: 10.1080/17535069.2016.1227875).

14. Van Winden, W. and L. Carvalho. 2016. "Urbanize or Perish? Assessing the Urbanization of Knowledge Locations in Europe" Journal of Urban Technology 23(1): 53-70.