Cognitive mapping the topic of service recovery

Cognitive mapping the topic of service recovery

Joseph Kim-keung Ho

Independent Trainer

Hong Kong, China

Abstract: The topic of service recovery in the subject of service operations management is complex. By making use of the cognitive mapping technique to conduct a brief literature review on the service recovery topic, the writer renders a systemic image on the topic of service recovery. The result of the study, in the form of a cognitive map on service recovery, should be useful to those who are interested in the topics of cognitive mapping, literature review and service recovery.

Key words: service recovery, cognitive mapping, literature review

Introduction

As a topic in service operations management, service recovery is complex. It is thus useful to employ some learning tool to conduct its study, notably for literature review purpose. As a teacher in research methods, systems thinking and management, including tourism management, the writer is specifically interested in finding out how the cognitive mapping technique can be employed to study service recovery as a literature review exercise. This literature review exercise is taken up and reported in this article.

On the cognitive mapping exercise for literature review

Literature review is an important intellectual learning exercise, and not just for doing final year dissertation projects for tertiary education students. On these two topics of intellectual learning and literature review, the writer has compiled some e-learning resources. They are the Managerial intellectual learning Facebook page and the Literature on literature review Facebook page. Conducting literature review with the cognitive mapping technique is not novel in the cognitive mapping literature, see Eden and Simpson (1989), Eden, Jones and Sims (1983), Open University (n.d) and the Literature on cognitive mapping Facebook page. In this article, the specific steps involved in the cognitive mapping exercise are as follows:

Step 1: gather some main points from a number of academic journal articles on service recovery. This result in the production of a table (Table 1) with the main points and associated references.

Step 2: Consolidate  the main points from Table 1 to come up with a table listing the cognitive map variables (re: Table 2).

Step 3: Link up the cognitive  map variables in a plausible way to produce a cognitive map (re: Figure 1) on the topic under review.

The next section applies these three steps to produce a cognitive map on service recovery.

Descriptions of cognitive map variables on the service recovery topic

From the reading of some academic articles on service recovery, a number of main points are gathered. They are shown in Table 1 with explicit referencing on the points.

Table 1: Main points from the service recovery literature and referencing

Main points from the service recovery literature	Referencing
Point 1: "Although service failure has the potential for destroying loyalty, effective application of recovery techniques may enable service managers to maintain or even increase loyalty".	Miller, J.L., C.W. Craighead and K.R. Karwan. 2000. "Service recovery: a framework and empirical investigation" Journal of Operations Management 18, Elsevier: 387-400.
Point 2: "Service recovery involves those actions designed to resolve problems, alter negative  attitudes of dissatisfied consumers and to ultimately retain these  customers".	Miller, J.L., C.W. Craighead and K.R. Karwan. 2000. "Service recovery: a framework and empirical investigation" Journal of Operations Management 18, Elsevier: 387-400.
Point 3: "...in an environment where factors such as varying customer expectations and high levels of human involvement complicate the service delivery process, mistakes are inevitable".	Miller, J.L., C.W. Craighead and K.R. Karwan. 2000. "Service recovery: a framework and empirical investigation" Journal of Operations Management 18, Elsevier: 387-400.
Point 4: "Service failures typically result from fail points in the service delivery process and recovery efforts require employee intervention and specific activities to accommodate and retain the customer".	Miller, J.L., C.W. Craighead and K.R. Karwan. 2000. "Service recovery: a framework and empirical investigation" Journal of Operations Management 18, Elsevier: 387-400.
Point 5: The elements of service recovery include: "(1) outcome measures related to customer satisfaction and retention: (2) antecedents to successful/ unsuccessful recovery; (3) the phases of recovery; (4) types of recovery activities; and (5) the delivery of service recovery".	Miller, J.L., C.W. Craighead and K.R. Karwan. 2000. "Service recovery: a framework and empirical investigation" Journal of Operations Management 18, Elsevier: 387-400.
Point 6: "Success in services is typically measured  via outcome measures such as customer satisfaction, loyalty and retention".	Miller, J.L., C.W. Craighead and K.R. Karwan. 2000. "Service recovery: a framework and empirical investigation" Journal of Operations Management 18, Elsevier: 387-400.
Point 7: "The recovery activities undertaken during the immediate and follow-up recovery phases take two forms: psychological and tangible...  Psychological recovery efforts make a direct attempt to ameliorate the situation by showing concern for the customer's needs.... Tangible recovery efforts offer compensation for real and perceived damages".	Miller, J.L., C.W. Craighead and K.R. Karwan. 2000. "Service recovery: a framework and empirical investigation" Journal of Operations Management 18, Elsevier: 387-400.
Point 8: "...dissatisfied customers choose to redress, engage in negative word-of-mouth behavior, or exit, based on the perceived likelihood of successful redress".	Andreassen, T.W. 2000. "Antecedents to Satisfaction  with Service Recovery" European Journal of Marketing 34(1/2), Emerald: 156-175.
Point 9: "Satisfaction with service recovery may be seen as a function of 1) negative affect caused by initial service failure, 2) expectations of service recovery,  3) perceived quality of service recovery, 4) disconfirmation of execrations, and 5) perceived  fairness of outcome of service recovery, i.e. equity".	Andreassen, T.W. 2000. "Antecedents to Satisfaction  with Service Recovery" European Journal of Marketing 34(1/2), Emerald: 156-175.
Point 10: "Empirical evidence, observed  across a variety of service industries, indicate that customers who have experienced problems with service suppliers are often dissatisfied with the ways in which problems are resolved".	Spreng, R.A. 1995. "Service recovery: impact on satisfaction and intentions" Journal of services marketing 9(1), Emerald: 15-23.
Point 11: "Since word-of-mouth (WoM) regarding problem resolution can be a major positive or negative force in building a firm's reputation and retaining customers... the reward to companies which resolve problems to customer's satisfaction appears to be very high".	Spreng, R.A. 1995. "Service recovery: impact on satisfaction and intentions" Journal of services marketing 9(1), Emerald: 15-23.
Point 12: "Service recovery processes are those activities in which a company engages to address a customer complaint regarding a perceived service failure".	Spreng, R.A. 1995. "Service recovery: impact on satisfaction and intentions" Journal of services marketing 9(1), Emerald: 15-23.
Point 13: "Parasuraman et al. ...identify two primary types of dimensions operating when consumers evaluate a service encounter: outcome dimensions and process dimensions....   Berry and Parasuraman ... indicates that outcome is the primary driver of consumer evaluations of  service during the initial service encounter, while process is the primary  driver during service recovery".	Spreng, R.A. 1995. "Service recovery: impact on satisfaction and intentions" Journal of services marketing 9(1), Emerald: 15-23.
Point 14: "A service failure is essentially a flawed outcome that reflects a breakdown in reliability".	Spreng, R.A. 1995. "Service recovery: impact on satisfaction and intentions" Journal of services marketing 9(1), Emerald: 15-23.
Point 15: "...the role of customer-contact personnel during service recovery is expected to be a key factor in determining overall satisfaction".	Spreng, R.A. 1995. "Service recovery: impact on satisfaction and intentions" Journal of services marketing 9(1), Emerald: 15-23.
Point 16: "In today's hyper-competitive business environment, repeat customers are vital for success. Service failures, however, have the potential to destroy customer loyalty".	Mattila, A.S. 2001. "The effectiveness of service recovery in a multi-industry setting" The Journal of Services Marketing 15(7), MCB Press: 583-596.
Point 17: "Many customers had had an unfavourable service  experience and most often experienced a poor recovery process leading to disaster that worsens the situation even further".	Edvardsson, B., B. Tronvoll and R. Hoykinpuro. 2011. "Complex service recovery processes: how to avoid triple deviation" Managing Service Quality 21(4), Emerald: 331-349.
Point 18: "....a service company always had a second chance, even after an initial unfavourable service experience, because recovery activities such as apologies, explanations, substitutions, or compensation can save the relationship and arrest negative word of mouth".	Edvardsson, B., B. Tronvoll and R. Hoykinpuro. 2011. "Complex service recovery processes: how to avoid triple deviation" Managing Service Quality 21(4), Emerald: 331-349.
Point 19: "Given that the service-dominant logic perspective... asserts that all firms are service in nature and that goods are platforms or distribution mechanisms for service provision, the application of service recovery is a far more reaching issue than previously thought".	Dong, B., K.R. Evans and S. Zou. 2008. "The effects of customer participation in co-created service recovery" J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci. 36, Springer: 123-137.
Point 20: "Customers can actively participate in co-creating a solution when service failure occurs by applying specialized skills and knowledge".	Dong, B., K.R. Evans and S. Zou. 2008. "The effects of customer participation in co-created service recovery" J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci. 36, Springer: 123-137.
"Point 21: Although some researchers have argued that the best strategy is to fail-safe the original service delivery, it is nearly impossible to eliminate all failures".	Michel, S. and M.L. Meuter. 2008. "The service recovery paradox: true  but overrated?" International Journal of Service Industry Management 19(4), Emerald: 441-457.
Point 22: "Smith et al....have treated service recovery as "a 'bundle of resources' that an organization can employ in response to a failure."."	Michel, S. and M.L. Meuter. 2008. "The service recovery paradox: true  but overrated?" International Journal of Service Industry Management 19(4), Emerald: 441-457.
Point 23: "Because many customers dissatisfied with a service encounter are reluctant to complain...., proactive  service recovery efforts, that is, those that attempt to solve problems at the point of encounter - are the most effective way to minimize negative outcomes of a service failure".	Michel, S. and M.L. Meuter. 2008. "The service recovery paradox: true  but overrated?" International Journal of Service Industry Management 19(4), Emerald: 441-457.
Point 24: "..the term recovery paradox" refers to situations in which the satisfaction, word-of-mouth intentions, and repurchase rates of recovered customers exceed those of customers who have not encountered any problems with the initial service".	Michel, S. and M.L. Meuter. 2008. "The service recovery paradox: true  but overrated?" International Journal of Service Industry Management 19(4), Emerald: 441-457.
Point 25: "Service operation can have high complexity, because  it is based on personal relationships between consumers and front-office employees. Therefore, service operation strategy should consider the failure recovery process".	Battaglia, D., M. Borchardt, M.A. Sellitto and G.M. Pereira. 2012. "Service recovery: a method for assessing performance" Business Process Management 18(6), Emerald: 949-963.
Point 26: "Johnston and Clark... consider that service recovery involves attempts to identify actual and potential failures in advance, correct them and make improvements in the process of service delivery".	Battaglia, D., M. Borchardt, M.A. Sellitto and G.M. Pereira. 2012. "Service recovery: a method for assessing performance" Business Process Management 18(6), Emerald: 949-963.
Point 27: "According to Johnson and Michel...., service recovery can be thought of as a triple system. One element of the system is customer recovery... The second element is process recovery.... The third element is employee recovery".	Battaglia, D., M. Borchardt, M.A. Sellitto and G.M. Pereira. 2012. "Service recovery: a method for assessing performance" Business Process Management 18(6), Emerald: 949-963.

With a set of main points collected, the writer produces a set of cognitive map variables. These variables are informed by the set of main points from Table 1. These variables are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Cognitive map variables based on Table 1

Cognitive map variables	Literature review points
Variable 1: Drivers to adopt service recovery practices	Point 10: "Empirical evidence, observed  across a variety of service industries, indicate that customers who have experienced problems with service suppliers are often dissatisfied with the ways in which problems are resolved". Point 11: "Since word-of-mouth (WoM) regarding problem resolution can be a major positive or negative force in building a firm's reputation and retaining customers... the reward to companies which resolve problems to customer's satisfaction appears to be very high". Point 16: "In today's hyper-competitive business environment, repeat customers are vital for success. Service failures, however, have the potential to destroy customer loyalty". Point 17: "Many customers had had an unfavourable service  experience and most often experienced a poor recovery process leading to disaster that worsens the situation even further". Point 19: "Given that the service-dominant logic perspective... asserts that all firms are service in nature and that goods are platforms or distribution mechanisms for service provision, the application of service recovery is a far more reaching issue than previously thought".
Variable 2: Improved knowledge on service recovery	Point 3: "...in an environment where factors such as varying customer expectations and high levels of human involvement complicate the service delivery process, mistakes are inevitable". Point 4: "Service failures typically result from fail points in the service delivery process and recovery efforts require employee intervention and specific activities to accommodate and retain the customer". Point 8: "...dissatisfied customers choose to redress, engage in negative word-of-mouth behavior, or exit, based on the perceived likelihood of successful redress". Point 12: "Service recovery processes are those activities in which a company engages to address a customer complaint regarding a perceived service failure". Point 13: "Parasuraman et al. ...identify two primary types of dimensions operating when consumers evaluate a service encounter: outcome dimensions and process dimensions....   Berry and Parasuraman ... indicates that outcome is the primary driver of consumer evaluations of  service during the initial service encounter, while process is the primary  driver during service recovery". Point 14: "A service failure is essentially a flawed outcome that reflects a breakdown in reliability". "Point 21: Although some researchers have argued that the best strategy is to fail-safe the original service delivery, it is nearly impossible to eliminate all failures". Point 22: "Smith et al....have treated service recovery as "a 'bundle of resources' that an organization can employ in response to a failure."." Point 24: "..the term recovery paradox" refers to situations in which the satisfaction, word-of-mouth intentions, and repurchase rates of recovered customers exceed those of customers who have not encountered any problems with the initial service". Point 27: "According to Johnson and Michel...., service recovery can be thought of as a triple system. One element of the system is customer recovery... The second element is process recovery.... The third element is employee recovery".
Variable 3: Effective service recovery practices	Point 2: "Service recovery involves those actions designed to resolve problems, alter negative  attitudes of dissatisfied consumers and to ultimately retain these  customers". Point 5: The elements of service recovery include: "(1) outcome measures related to customer satisfaction and retention: (2) antecedents to successful/ unsuccessful recovery; (3) the phases of recovery; (4) types of recovery activities; and (5) the delivery of service recovery". Point 7: "The recovery activities undertaken during the immediate and follow-up recovery phases take two forms: psychological and tangible...  Psychological recovery efforts make a direct attempt to ameliorate the situation by showing concern for the customer's needs.... Tangible recovery efforts offer compensation for real and perceived damages". Point 15: "...the role of customer-contact personnel during service recovery is expected to be a key factor in determining overall satisfaction". Point 18: "....a service company always had a second chance, even after an initial unfavourable service experience, because recovery activities such as apologies, explanations, substitutions, or compensation can save the relationship and arrest negative word of mouth". Point 20: "Customers can actively participate in co-creating a solution when service failure occurs by applying specialized skills and knowledge". "Because many customers dissatisfied with a service encounter are reluctant to complain...., proactive  service recovery efforts, that is, those that attempt to solve problems at the point of encounter - are the most effective way to minimize negative outcomes of a service failure". Point 26: "Johnston and Clark... consider that service recovery involves attempts to identify actual and potential failures in advance, correct them and make improvements in the process of service delivery".
Variable 4: Effective overall operations management	Point 25: "Service operation can have high complexity, because  it is based on personal relationships between consumers and front-office employees. Therefore, service operation strategy should consider the failure recovery process".
Variable 5: Positive  outcomes of service recovery	Point 1: "Although service failure has the potential for destroying loyalty, effective application of recovery techniques may enable service managers to maintain or even increase loyalty". Point 6: "Success in services is typically measured  via outcome measures such as customer satisfaction, loyalty and retention". Point 9: "Satisfaction with service recovery may be seen as a function of 1) negative affect caused by initial service failure, 2) expectations of service recovery,  3) perceived quality of service recovery, 4) disconfirmation of execrations, and 5) perceived  fairness of outcome of service recovery, i.e. equity".
Variable 6: Effective learning on service recovery practices	Point 26: "Johnston and Clark... consider that service recovery involves attempts to identify actual and potential failures in advance, correct them and make improvements in the process of service delivery".

The next step is to relate the cognitive map variables to make up a cognitive map on service recovery. The cognitive map is explained further in the next section.

A cognitive map on service recovery and its interpretation

By relating the variables identified in Table 2, the writer comes up with a cognitive map on service recovery, as shown in Figure 1.

The cognitive map on service recovery  comprises the following types of variables:

Service recovery drivers and knowledge: They include variable 1 (drivers to adopt service recovery practices) and variable 2 (improved  knowledge on service recovery).

Effective  operations management and service recovery practices: They cover variable 3 (effective service recovery practices) and variable 4 (effective overall operations management).

Outcomes and learning: They include variable 5 (positive outcomes of service recovery) and variable 6 (effective  learning on service recovery practices).

These cognitive  map variables are related to make up a systemic image of service recovery. The links in the cognitive map (re: Figure 1) indicate direction of influences between variables. The + sign shows that an increase in one variable leads to an increase in another variable while a -ve sign tells us that in increase in one variable leads to a decrease in another variable.  If there no signs shown on the arrows, that means the influences can be positive or negative.

Concluding remarks

The cognitive mapping exercise captures in one diagram some of the main variables involved in service recovery. The resultant cognitive map promotes an exploratory way to study service recovery  in a holistic tone. The experience of the cognitive mapping exercise is that it can be a quick, efficient and entertaining way to explore a complex topic such as service recovery in service operations management. Finally, readers who are interested in cognitive mapping should also find the article informative on this mapping topic.

Bibliography

1.      Andreassen, T.W. 2000. "Antecedents to Satisfaction  with Service Recovery" European Journal of Marketing 34(1/2), Emerald: 156-175.

2.      Battaglia, D., M. Borchardt, M.A. Sellitto and G.M. Pereira. 2012. "Service recovery: a method for assessing performance" Business Process Management 18(6), Emerald: 949-963.

3.      Dong, B., K.R. Evans and S. Zou. 2008. "The effects of customer participation in co-created service recovery" J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci. 36, Springer: 123-137.

4.      Eden, C. and P. Simpson. 1989. "SODA and cognitive mapping in practice", pp. 43-70, in Rosenhead, J. (editor) Rational Analysis for a Problematic World, Wiley, Chichester.

5.      Eden, C., C. Jones and D. Sims. 1983. Messing about in Problems: An informal structured approach to their identification and management, Pergamon Press, Oxford.

6.      Edvardsson, B., B. Tronvoll and R. Hoykinpuro. 2011. "Complex service recovery processes: how to avoid triple deviation" Managing Service Quality 21(4), Emerald: 331-349.

7.      Literature on cognitive mapping Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. Ho (url address: https://www.facebook.com/Literature-on-cognitive-mapping-800894476751355/).

8.      Literature on literature review Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. Ho (url address: https://www.facebook.com/literature.literaturereview/).

9.      Literature on service  recovery Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. Ho (https://www.facebook.com/Literature-on-service-recovery-1908783626044543/).

10. Managerial intellectual learning Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. Ho (url address: https://www.facebook.com/managerial.intellectual.learning/).

11. Mattila, A.S. 2001. "The effectiveness of service recovery in a multi-industry setting" The Journal of Services Marketing 15(7), MCB Press: 583-596.

12. Michel, S. and M.L. Meuter. 2008. "The service recovery paradox: true  but overrated?" International Journal of Service Industry Management 19(4), Emerald: 441-457.

13. Miller, J.L., C.W. Craighead and K.R. Karwan. 2000. "Service recovery: a framework and empirical investigation" Journal of Operations Management 18, Elsevier: 387-400.

14. Open University. n.d. "Sign graph" Systems Thinking and Practice (T552): Diagramming, Open University, U.K. (url address: http://systems.open.ac.uk/materials/T552/) [visited at April 10, 2017].

15. Spreng, R.A. 1995. "Service recovery: impact on satisfaction and intentions" Journal of services marketing 9(1), Emerald: 15-23.