Cognitive mapping the topic of the cognitive mapping technique

Cognitive mapping the topic of the cognitive mapping technique

Joseph Kim-keung Ho

Independent Trainer

Hong Kong, China

Abstract: The topic of the cognitive mapping technique is rich. By making use of the cognitive mapping to conduct a brief literature review on the cognitive mapping technique topic, the writer renders a systemic image on the topic of the cognitive mapping technique. The result of the study, in the form of a cognitive mapping-based literature review exercise on the cognitive mapping technique, should be useful to those who are interested in the topics of literature review, the cognitive mapping technique and the cognitive mapping-based literature review.

Key words: the cognitive mapping-based literature review, cognitive mapping technique, literature review

Introduction

The topic of the cognitive mapping technique is rich. It is thus useful to employ some learning tool to conduct its study, notably for literature review purpose. As a teacher in research methods, systems thinking and management, the writer is specifically interested in finding out how a cognitive mapping-based literature review can be employed to study the cognitive mapping technique. This literature review exercise is taken up and reported in this article.

On the cognitive mapping-based literature review

Literature review is an important intellectual learning exercise, and not just for doing final year dissertation projects for tertiary education students. On these two topics of intellectual learning and literature review, the writer has compiled some e-learning resources. They are the Managerial intellectual learning Facebook page and the Literature on literature review Facebook page. Conducting literature review with the cognitive mapping technique is not novel in the cognitive mapping literature, see Eden and Simpson (1989), Eden, Jones and Sims (1983), Open University (n.d) and the Literature on cognitive mapping Facebook page. In this article, the specific steps involved in the cognitive mapping-based literature review are as follows:

Step 1: gather some main points from a number of academic journal articles on the cognitive mapping technique. This result in the production of a table (Table 1) with the main points and associated references.

Step 2: Consolidate  the main points from Table 1 to come up with a table listing the cognitive map variables (re: Table 2).

Step 3: Link up the cognitive  map variables in a plausible way to produce a cognitive map (re: Figure 1) on the topic under review.

The next section applies these three steps to produce a cognitive map on the cognitive mapping technique.

Descriptions of cognitive map variables on the cognitive mapping technique topic

From the reading of some academic articles on the cognitive mapping technique, a number of main points are gathered. They are shown in Table 1 with explicit referencing on the points.

Table 1: Main points from the cognitive mapping technique literature and referencing

Main points from the cognitive mapping technique literature	Referencing
Point 1: "In the early stages of my own attempts at working with cognitive maps I was determined to see them as models of thinking - at least to the extent that they might help us understand the sociology of defining the situation".	Edens, C. 1992.  "On the nature of cognitive maps" Journal of Management Studies 29(3) May: 261-265.
Point 2: "...the only reasonable claim that can be made of cognitive maps as an artefact....is that: (1) they may represent subjective data more meaningfully than other models and so have utility for researchers interested in subjective knowledge, and (2) they may act as a tool to facilitate decision-making, problem-solving, and negotiation within the context of organizational intervention".	Edens, C. 1992.  "On the nature of cognitive maps" Journal of Management Studies 29(3) May: 261-265.
Point 3: "In some cases maps of groups are developed by aggregating maps from  individuals...., in other cases by building a map directly from a group..., and in others by inference from documentary evidence that relates to an organization or to an industry".	Edens, C. 1992.  "On the nature of cognitive maps" Journal of Management Studies 29(3) May: 261-265.
Point 4: "In some cases individuals are participatively involved in validating their  own map, and in others  the link between data collection and map is managed solely by the researcher or interventionist".	Edens, C. 1992.  "On the nature of cognitive maps" Journal of Management Studies 29(3) May: 261-265.
Point 5: "A cognitive map is a model - a model amenable to formal analysis. It is a model designed to represent the way in which a person defines an issue".	Eden, C. 1989. "Using cognitive mapping for strategic options development and analysis (SODA)", pp. 21-42, in Rosenhead, J. (editor) Rational analysis for a problematic world, Wiley.
Point 6: A cognitive map is "a network of ideas linked by arrows: the network is coded from what a person says. The arrows indicate the way in which one idea may lead to, or have implications for, another". Thus, a map is a network of nodes and links".	Eden, C. 1989. "Using cognitive mapping for strategic options development and analysis (SODA)", pp. 21-42, in Rosenhead, J. (editor) Rational analysis for a problematic world, Wiley.
Point 7: Cognitive mapping is employed in Strategic Options Development and Analysis (SODA), "an approach which is designed to help OR [Operational Research] consultants help their clients with messy problems".	Eden, C. 1989. "Using cognitive mapping for strategic options development and analysis (SODA)", pp. 21-42, in Rosenhead, J. (editor) Rational analysis for a problematic world, Wiley.
Point 8: "The phrases and linking are not precisely a replication of the language used by the person speaking: they have been modified to reflect the need for an action orientation".	Eden, C. 1989. "Using cognitive mapping for strategic options development and analysis (SODA)", pp. 21-42, in Rosenhead, J. (editor) Rational analysis for a problematic world, Wiley.
Point 9: "Cognitive mapping is proving a valuable tool in assisting managers to think through issues of strategy".	Tyler, D. 2001. "Cognitive mapping: A tool to support strategic management" Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management 5(4), Emerald: 353-357.
Point 10: The SODA methodology has recently developed further into 'JOURNEY Making' (JOintly Understanding Reflection and NEgotiating  strategY)".	Eden, C. and F. Ackermann. 2004. "Cognitive mapping expert views for policy analysis in the public  sector" European Journal of Operational Research 152, Elsevier: 615-630.
Point 11: "SODA and JOURNEY Making traditionally comprise a number of interlinked  elements: facilitator(s) using cognitive mapping as a technique; computer software (Decision Explorer) as a supporting tool to elicit, store and handle the complexity revealed by members of a client team through a designed process of inquiry exploring strategic issues. The methodology brings  these elements together so as to meet the specific needs of those drawing on support from the system".	Eden, C. and F. Ackermann. 2004. "Cognitive mapping expert views for policy analysis in the public  sector" European Journal of Operational Research 152, Elsevier: 615-630.
Point 12: "Personal construct theory sees "man as a scientist", constantly trying to make sense of the world in order to act within and upon that world".	Eden, C. and F. Ackermann. 2004. "Cognitive mapping expert views for policy analysis in the public  sector" European Journal of Operational Research 152, Elsevier: 615-630.
Point 13: "The analyst using the technique of cognitive mapping seeks to elicit the beliefs, values and expertise of decision makers relevant to the issue in hand through interview or through the analysis and coding of documents".	Eden, C. and F. Ackermann. 2004. "Cognitive mapping expert views for policy analysis in the public  sector" European Journal of Operational Research 152, Elsevier: 615-630.
Point 14: "... one of the significant distinguishing features  of the type of cognitive maps used for problem structuring is that they tend to be larger than those used for research".	Eden, C. and F. Ackermann. 2004. "Cognitive mapping expert views for policy analysis in the public  sector" European Journal of Operational Research 152, Elsevier: 615-630.
Point 15: "A cognitive map  demands that assertions have consequences or implications".	Eden, C. and F. Ackermann. 2004. "Cognitive mapping expert views for policy analysis in the public  sector" European Journal of Operational Research 152, Elsevier: 615-630.
Point 16: "... the arrow shows the implied possible action and its possible outcome as suggested by the original argument".	Eden, C. and F. Ackermann. 2004. "Cognitive mapping expert views for policy analysis in the public  sector" European Journal of Operational Research 152, Elsevier: 615-630.
Point 17: "In building a map, ... it is important to ask at each and every stage what the proper place of a concept is within the map".	Eden, C. and F. Ackermann. 2004. "Cognitive mapping expert views for policy analysis in the public  sector" European Journal of Operational Research 152, Elsevier: 615-630.
Point 18: "Cognitive mapping is a qualitative technique designed to identify cause and effect as well as to capture causal links... It is used to structure, analyse and make sense of problems".	Hines, T. 2000. "An evaluation of two qualitative methods (focus group interview and cognitive maps) for conducting research into entrepreneurial decision making" Qualitative Market  Research 3(1), Emerald: 7-16.
Point 19: "[Novak and Gowan]... used the techniques after first conducting pre-mapping interview to obtain concept definition. When the mapping interview takes place the researchers presents the interviewee with the concepts and is then asked to arrange them searching for cause and effect".	Hines, T. 2000. "An evaluation of two qualitative methods (focus group interview and cognitive maps) for conducting research into entrepreneurial decision making" Qualitative Market  Research 3(1), Emerald: 7-16.
Point 20: Cognitive mapping is  regarded as "an approach to conducting research work".	Hines, T. 2000. "An evaluation of two qualitative methods (focus group interview and cognitive maps) for conducting research into entrepreneurial decision making" Qualitative Market  Research 3(1), Emerald: 7-16.
Point 21: "Ackerman et al.... suggest that cognitive mapping can be used for note-taking at interviews with the problem owner. It may also be used to record transcripts of interviews or other documentary evidence in a way that promotes analysis, questioning and understanding".	Hines, T. 2000. "An evaluation of two qualitative methods (focus group interview and cognitive maps) for conducting research into entrepreneurial decision making" Qualitative Market  Research 3(1), Emerald: 7-16.
Point 22: "Cognitive mapping is a modelling technique to represent a problem space by a series of interconnected causal maps".	Westcome, M. 2008. "Problem structuring: the process of SODA modelling" Semantic Scholar (url address: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Problem-Structuring-the-Process-of-Soda-Modelling-WESTCOMBE/c81dbecceec8e782da1b726ea983adeaf337a103) [visited at April 16, 2017].
Point 23: "The maps consist of 2-D directed graphs  of nodes containing text that are linked together according to their causal relationship".	Westcome, M. 2008. "Problem structuring: the process of SODA modelling" Semantic Scholar (url address: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Problem-Structuring-the-Process-of-Soda-Modelling-WESTCOMBE/c81dbecceec8e782da1b726ea983adeaf337a103) [visited at April 16, 2017].
Point 24: "The SODA methodology.... includes a step-by-step account of how to plan a "quick and dirty" strategy workshop".	Westcome, M. 2008. "Problem structuring: the process of SODA modelling" Semantic Scholar (url address: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Problem-Structuring-the-Process-of-Soda-Modelling-WESTCOMBE/c81dbecceec8e782da1b726ea983adeaf337a103) [visited at April 16, 2017].
Point 25: "SODA places great reliance on the facilitator to select and shape each step of the workshop, since there is no rigorous, step-by-step procedure".	Westcome, M. 2008. "Problem structuring: the process of SODA modelling" Semantic Scholar (url address: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Problem-Structuring-the-Process-of-Soda-Modelling-WESTCOMBE/c81dbecceec8e782da1b726ea983adeaf337a103) [visited at April 16, 2017].

With a set of main points collected, the writer produces a set of cognitive map variables. These variables are informed by the set of main points from Table 1. These variables are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Cognitive map variables based on Table 1

Cognitive map variables	Literature review points
Variable 1: Understand underlying theories and thinking	Point 1: "In the early stages of my own attempts at working with cognitive maps I was determined to see them as models of thinking - at least to the extent that they might help us understand the sociology of defining the situation". Point 12: "Personal construct theory sees "man as a scientist", constantly trying to make sense of the world in order to act within and upon that world".
Variable 2: Understand main features of the cognitive mapping techniques	Point 2: "...the only reasonable claim that can be made of cognitive maps as an artefact....is that: (1) they may represent subjective data more meaningfully than other models and so have utility for researchers interested in subjective knowledge, and (2) they may act as a tool to facilitate decision-making, problem-solving, and negotiation within the context of organizational intervention". Point 3: "In some cases maps of groups are developed by aggregating maps from  individuals...., in other cases by building a map directly from a group..., and in others by inference from documentary evidence that relates to an organization or to an industry". Point 4: "In some cases individuals are participatively involved in validating their  own map, and in others  the link between data collection and map is managed solely by the researcher or interventionist". Point 5: "A cognitive map is a model - a model amenable to formal analysis. It is a model designed to represent the way in which a person defines an issue". Point 6: A cognitive map is "a network of ideas linked by arrows: the network is coded from what a person says. The arrows indicate the way in which one idea may lead to, or have implications for, another". Thus, a map is a network of nodes and links". Point 8: "The phrases and linking are not precisely a replication of the language used by the person speaking: they have been modified to reflect the need for an action orientation". Point 13: "The analyst using the technique of cognitive mapping seeks to elicit the beliefs, values and expertise of decision makers relevant to the issue in hand through interview or through the analysis and coding of documents". Point 14: "... one of the significant distinguishing features  of the type of cognitive maps used for problem structuring is that they tend to be larger than those used for research". Point 15: "A cognitive map  demands that assertions have consequences or implications". Point 16: "... the arrow shows the implied possible action and its possible outcome as suggested by the original argument". Point 17: "In building a map, ... it is important to ask at each and every stage what the proper place of a concept is within the map". Point 18: "Cognitive mapping is a qualitative technique designed to identify cause and effect as well as to capture causal links... It is used to structure, analyse and make sense of problems". Point 22: "Cognitive mapping is a modelling technique to represent a problem space by a series of interconnected causal maps". Point 23: "The maps consist of 2-D directed graphs  of nodes containing text that are linked together according to their causal relationship".
Variable 3: Improved formulation of methodologies using the cognitive mapping technique	Point 7: Cognitive mapping is employed in Strategic Options Development and Analysis (SODA), "an approach which is designed to help OR [Operational Research] consultants help their clients with messy problems". Point 10: The SODA methodology has recently developed further into 'JOURNEY Making' (JOintly Understanding Reflection and NEgotiating  strategY)". Point 11: "SODA and JOURNEY Making traditionally comprise a number of interlinked  elements: facilitator(s) using cognitive mapping as a technique; computer software (Decision Explorer) as a supporting tool to elicit, store and handle the complexity revealed by members of a client team through a designed process of inquiry exploring strategic issues. The methodology brings  these elements together so as to meet the specific needs of those drawing on support from the system". Point 19: "[Novak and Gowan]... used the techniques after first conducting pre-mapping interview to obtain concept definition. When the mapping interview takes place the researchers presents the interviewee with the concepts and is then asked to arrange them searching for cause and effect". Point 24: "The SODA methodology.... includes a step-by-step account of how to plan a "quick and dirty" strategy workshop". Point 25: "SODA places great reliance on the facilitator to select and shape each step of the workshop, since there is no rigorous, step-by-step procedure".
Variable 4: Effective applications in research works and decision-support in specific  problem-situations	NA
Variable 5" Positive contributions to research works and specific problem-situation alleviation	Point 9: "Cognitive mapping is proving a valuable tool in assisting managers to think through issues of strategy". Point 20: Cognitive mapping is  regarded as "an approach to conducting research work". Point 21: "Ackerman et al.... suggest that cognitive mapping can be used for note-taking at interviews with the problem owner. It may also be used to record transcripts of interviews or other documentary evidence in a way that promotes analysis, questioning and understanding".
Variable 6: Further refinements of the cognitive mapping technique	NA

The next step is to relate the cognitive map variables to make up a cognitive map on the cognitive mapping technique. The cognitive map is explained further in the next section.

A cognitive map on the cognitive mapping technique and its interpretation

By relating the variables identified in Table 2, the writer comes up with a cognitive map on the cognitive mapping technique, as shown in Figure 1.

The cognitive map on the cognitive mapping technique  comprises the following types of variables:

Understanding of the ideas related to the technique: They include variable 1 (understand underlying theories and thinking and variable 2 (understand main features of the cognitive mapping technique).

Formulation and applications of methodologies that use the technique: They include variable 3 (improved formulation of the methodologies using the cognitive mapping technique) and variable 4 (effective applications in research and decision support).

Impacts assessment: They cover variable 5 (positive contributions to research works and specific problem-situation alleviation) and variable 6 (further refinements of the cognitive mapping technique).

These cognitive  map variables are related to make up a systemic image of the cognitive mapping technique. The links in the cognitive map (re: Figure 1) indicate direction of influences between variables. The + sign shows that an increase in one variable leads to an increase in another variable while a -ve sign tells us that in increase in one variable leads to a decrease in another variable.  If there no signs shown on the arrows, that means the influences can be positive or negative.

Concluding remarks

The cognitive mapping-based literature review exercise captures in one diagram some of the main variables involved in the cognitive mapping technique. The resultant cognitive map promotes an exploratory way to study the cognitive mapping technique  in a holistic tone. The experience of the cognitive mapping-based literature review exercise is that it can be a quick, efficient and entertaining way to explore a rich topic such as the cognitive mapping technique.

Bibliography

1.      Eden, C. 1989. "Using cognitive mapping for strategic options development and analysis (SODA)", pp. 21-42, in Rosenhead, J. (editor) Rational analysis for a problematic world, Wiley.

2.      Eden, C. and F. Ackermann. 2004. "Cognitive mapping expert views for policy analysis in the public  sector" European Journal of Operational Research 152, Elsevier: 615-630.

3.      Eden, C. and P. Simpson. 1989. "SODA and cognitive mapping in practice", pp. 43-70, in Rosenhead, J. (editor) Rational Analysis for a Problematic World, Wiley, Chichester.

4.      Eden, C., C. Jones and D. Sims. 1983. Messing about in Problems: An informal structured approach to their identification and management, Pergamon Press, Oxford.

5.      Edens, C. 1992.  "On the nature of cognitive maps" Journal of Management Studies 29(3)

6.      Hines, T. 2000. "An evaluation of two qualitative methods (focus group interview and cognitive maps) for conducting research into entrepreneurial decision making" Qualitative Market  Research 3(1), Emerald: 7-16.

7.      Literature on cognitive mapping Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. Ho (url address: https://www.facebook.com/Literature-on-cognitive-mapping-800894476751355/).

8.      Literature on literature review Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. Ho (url address: https://www.facebook.com/literature.literaturereview/).

9.      Managerial intellectual learning Facebook page, maintained by Joseph, K.K. Ho (url address: https://www.facebook.com/managerial.intellectual.learning/).

10. Open University. n.d. "Sign graph" Systems Thinking and Practice (T552): Diagramming, Open University, U.K. (url address: http://systems.open.ac.uk/materials/T552/) [visited at April 10, 2017].

11. Tyler, D. 2001. "Cognitive mapping: A tool to support strategic management" Journal of

12. Westcome, M. 2008. "Problem structuring: the process of SODA modelling" Semantic Scholar (url address: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Problem-Structuring-the-Process-of-Soda-Modelling-WESTCOMBE/c81dbecceec8e782da1b726ea983adeaf337a103) [visited at April 16, 2017].