Mind mapping the topic of poverty
Joseph Kim-keung Ho
Independent
Trainer
Hong
Kong, China
Abstract: The topic of poverty
is a main one in Social Sciences. This article makes use of the mind
mapping-based literature review (MMBLR) approach to render an image on the
knowledge structure of poverty. The finding of the review exercise is that its
knowledge structure comprises four main themes, i.e., (a) Descriptions of basic
concepts and information (b) Major underlying theories and thinking, (c) Main
research topics and issues, and (d) Major trends and issues related to
practices. There is also a set of key concepts identified from
the poverty literature review. The article offers some academic and
pedagogical values on the topics of poverty, literature review and the mind
mapping-based literature review (MMBLR) approach.
Key words: Poverty, literature review, mind
map, the mind mapping-based literature review (MMBLR) approach
Introduction
Poverty
is a main topic in Social Sciences. It is of academic and pedagogical interest
to the writer who has been a lecturer on Housing Studies for some tertiary
education centres in Hong Kong. In this article, the writer presents his
literature review findings on poverty using the mind mapping-based literature
review (MMBLR) approach. This approach was proposed by this writer in 2016 and
has been employed to review the literature on a number of topics, such as
supply chain management, strategic management accounting and customer
relationship management (Ho, 2016). The MMBLR approach itself is not
particularly novel since mind mapping has been employed in literature review
since its inception. The overall aims of this exercise are to:
1.
Render an image of the knowledge structure of
poverty via the application of the MMBLR approach;
2.
Illustrate how the MMBLR approach can be
applied in literature review on an academic topic, such as poverty.
The findings from this literature review
exercise offer academic and pedagogical values to those who are interested in
the topics of poverty, literature review and the MMBLR approach. Other than
that, this exercise facilitates this writer’s intellectual learning on these
three topics. The next section makes a brief introduction on the MMBLR
approach. After that, an account of how it is applied to study poverty is
presented.
On mind
mapping-based literature review
The mind mapping-based literature review
(MMBLR) approach was developed by this writer in 2016 (Ho, 2016). It makes use
of mind mapping as a complementary literature review exercise (see the Literature on mind mapping Facebook page
and the Literature on literature review
Facebook page). The approach is made up of two steps. Step 1 is a thematic
analysis on the literature of the topic chosen for study. Step 2 makes use of
the findings from step 1 to produce a complementary mind map. The MMBLR
approach is a relatively straightforward and brief exercise. The approach is
not particularly original since the idea of using mind maps in literature
review has been well recognized in the mind mapping literature. The MMBLR
approach is also an interpretive exercise in the sense that different reviewers
with different research interest and intellectual background inevitably will
select different ideas, facts and findings in their thematic analysis (i.e.,
step 1 of the MMBLR approach). Also, to conduct the approach, the reviewer
needs to perform a literature search beforehand. Apparently, what a reviewer
gathers from a literature search depends on what library facility, including
e-library, is available to the reviewer. The next section presents the findings
from the MMBLR approach step 1; afterward, a companion mind map is provided
based on the MMBLR approach step 1 findings.
Mind
mapping-based literature review on poverty: step 1 findings
Step 1 of the MMBLR approach is a thematic analysis on
the literature of the topic under investigation (Ho, 2016). In our case, this
is the poverty topic. The writer gathers some academic articles from some
universities’ e-libraries as well as via the Google Scholar. With the academic
articles collected, the writer conducted a literature review on them to
assemble a set of ideas, viewpoints, concepts and findings (called points
here). The points from the poverty literature are then grouped into four themes
here. The key words in the quotations are bolded in order to highlight the key
concepts involved.
Theme
1: Descriptions of basic concepts and information
Point 1.1.
“In the 1970s, the overall development
discourse focused on economic growth and modernization …. Consequently, definitions
of poverty concentrated on material
aspects ….: poverty was viewed as the inability to fulfil the basic
requirements to attain a decent life and therefore obtain adequate nutrition,
housing and clothing” (Misturelli
and Hefferman, 2010);
Point 1.2.
“…by the 1990s, the notion of ‘rights’
was accorded a greater prominence: Extreme
poverty is a violation of human dignity and a denial of enjoyment of all
human rights” (Misturelli
and Hefferman, 2010);
Point 1.3.
“In the late 1990s, the German sociologists
Leisering and Leibfried … argued that most
poverty is of a temporary nature. …
Based on their work, individualization theorists such as Giddens and Beck
argue that ‘for most people poverty is only a temporary experience’.” (Snel, Reelick and Groenenboom, 2013);
Point 1.4.
“The absolute approach [to poverty] assumes that necessities are
determined by biology, thus rooting the determination of poverty cutoffs in the
hard science of nutrition. However, possessions that are considered luxuries in
one society can become necessities in another” (Swanstrom, Ryan and Stigers, 2008);
Point 1.5.
“Definitions of chronic poverty reflect the duration of poverty and the way it is
measured. Poverty can be experienced in a number of ways over time, for example
as repeated spells varying in duration or as a single prolonged spell” (Nandy, 2008);
Point 1.6.
“Contemporary poverty
is no longer a characteristic of certain marginalized
social categories, but is closely related to individual life choices and
unexpected life events” (Snel, Reelick and Groenenboom,
2013);
Point 1.7.
“…poverty has been attributed a move from econometric to basic needs, to social implications and to multi-disciplinary formulations ….
However, discourse is never constructed in such a singular and disjointed
manner …. Further, by considering poverty as a single construct, the
identification of more-subtle changes indicating shifts in thinking are
concealed” (Misturelli
and Hefferman, 2010);
Theme 2: Major underlying theories
and thinking
Point 2.1.
“…
micro-finance is neither
entrepreneurship nor economic development; rather, it would inherently create,
maintain, or exacerbate inequalities as part of a larger economic system of
credit and debt. In that sense, it would bring about not poverty alleviation
but its own round of Matthew effects, taking from the poor and giving to the
rich” (Hsu, 2014);
Point 2.2.
“….entertainment
is a highly valued dimension of life for many poor people because it provides a
temporary escape from the unique and heightened stressors poor people routinely
experience in their lives” (Foss, Generali and Kress, 2011);
Point 2.3.
“Bottom
of the Pyramid (BOP) strategies recognize for the first
time that global companies can contribute to the alleviation of worldwide
poverty by adopting non-traditional and mostly non-Western models of business
involvement” (Chatterjee, 2009);
Point 2.4.
“During the 1980s, the discourse of development remained firmly
rooted in the economic perspective, although
more attention was paid to non-monetary factors …. Thus, the definitions of
poverty began to include notions of powerlessness, isolation and vulnerability …,
but the individual orientation was still prevalent” (Misturelli and Hefferman, 2010);
Point 2.5.
“On a sufficiency view, rich states need only
assist people in poor states to reach a minimal level of well-being, for instance
one that allows them to meet their basic needs for food, shelter, medical care
and so forth” (Oberman,
2011);
Point 2.6.
“…
the
poor often lack the means to protect
themselves from adverse income and employment shocks. They lack assets,
such as bank deposits and land, and often have no direct access to credit
markets (or face prohibitive borrowing costs when they do), to smooth the
impact of these shocks” (Nikoloski, 2011);
Point 2.7.
“…..poverty-related stressors such as poor health
care, housing problems, and limited access to basic resources may incite
heightened forms of psychological stress and dysfunction” (Foss, Generali and Kress,
2011);
Point 2.8.
“….people
living in poverty often share a common knowledge, language, and set of life
experiences. Many individuals living in a culture
of poverty are also noted to demonstrate an unusual level of resilience in
the way they cope with the multiple stresses that are associated with living in
this cultural group” (Foss, Generali and Kress, 2011);
Point 2.9.
“…poor people have a human right to stay in their home state, which entitles them to
receive development assistance without the necessity of migrating abroad” (Oberman, 2011);
Point 2.10.
“An occurrence of a financial crisis puts pressures on informal sector workers and changes
the sectoral composition of employment, which in turn may exacerbate poverty
levels. Financial crises lead to a fall in earnings of both formal and informal
sector workers due to job losses in the formal sector and reduced demand for
services in the informal sector” (Nikoloski, 2011);
Point 2.11.
“Certain
deprivations (e.g. childhood
malnutrition) are known to have negative effects in later life, and prolonged
exposure to poor housing or insufficient food is known to be associated with a
range of negative outcomes, including raised morbidity and premature mortality”
(Nandy, 2008);
Point 2.12.
“Charity is necessary to ameliorate
the conditions of the poor. But it does not go far. That is why Vivekananda
wanted empowerment of the poor. He said, “All the wealth in the world cannot
help one little Indian village if the people are not taught to help themselves”..”
(Baneshananda, 2014);
Point 2.13.
“In 2000, the global community declared
eight Millennium Development Goals to substantially reduce global poverty (UN, 2000). To meet these goals, there has been an
increased focus by development actors on how poverty can be measured and
assessed. To this end, there has been a renewed interested in utilizing the narratives of the poor as a tool to better
understand the nature and impacts of poverty” (Misturelli and Heffernan, 2011);
Point 2.14.
“In
general, currency and debt crises
are associated with hyperinflation, which has been shown numerous times to hurt
the poor much more than the middle or the upper classes” (Nikoloski,
2011);
Point 2.15.
“In subsistence marketplaces, poverty is a normal circumstance, rather
than an outlier, and is characterized by deprivation of basic needs, as well as
a lack of formal services and infrastructure that are often taken for granted
in developed economies” (Gau,
Ramirez, Barua and Gonzalez, 2014);
Point 2.16.
“On an egalitarian view, rich states have a
duty to help people in poor states achieve some form of distributive equality
with their own citizens” (Oberman, 2011);
Point 2.17.
“People
with unfavourable initial conditions
in remote villages have little prospect of moving out of poverty; their lack of
physical capital closes off both pathways out of poverty” (De Weerdt, 2010);
Point 2.18.
“Prior research has pointed to the combination
of microfinance and entrepreneurship as a possible route to
poverty alleviation … In this regard, the motivation of the individual
entrepreneur is harnessed to spur economic activity. Thus, instead of simply
providing other countries with low cost goods, primary and ancillary economic
activities emerge which serve those living in subsistence, while in the process
working to improve their living standards” (Gau,
Ramirez, Barua and Gonzalez, 2014);
Point 2.19.
“Spending
cuts affect the volume of publicly provided critical social services, including social assistance outlays, and
limit the access of the poor to these services at a time when their incomes are
declining ….… indirect sources of income and public transfers may decline
during crises” (Nikoloski, 2011);
Point 2.20.
“The standard method of
determining poverty, pioneered in the late 19th century by Booth
and Rowntree in the United Kingdom, was to measure the cost of a nutritionally
adequate diet and determine whether a household had the means to procure it” (Swanstrom, Ryan and Stigers, 2008);
Point 2.21.
“The
term ‘‘community-based initiative’’
is not meant to describe a specific institutional structure, but rather the
organization of business activities within a subsistence-level marketplace wherein individual entrepreneurs are
highly motivated to cooperate with one another and to seek mutually beneficial arrangements”
(Gau, Ramirez, Barua and Gonzalez, 2014);
Point 2.22.
“Theorists
opposing immigration restrictions
have made two main arguments: one from poverty, the other from freedom. The
poverty argument holds that rich states have a duty to assist people in poor
states and that, under current circumstances, immigration restrictions conflict
with this duty since they deny poor people one means to improve their lot” (Oberman, 2011);
Point 2.23.
“Under
a relative approach to poverty, the
cutoff must go up as the average, or median, income in the community increases,
because the resources necessary to participate in society with dignity increase
as well” (Swanstrom, Ryan
and Stigers, 2008);
Theme 3: Main research topics and
issues
Point 3.1.
“…the psychological well-being of a person in
poverty still tends to be treated on a narrow individual-level or as a separate
domain from the person’s financial problems or the broader socio-economic and
political context” (Jo,
2012);
Point 3.2.
“….the reality
of the poor is often more complex and cannot be reduced to a sum of
different lacks … Indeed, an important aspect that is often ignored concerns
the expectations of the poor regarding their own future, and whether they
believe that change is feasible or possible..” (Misturelli and Heffernan, 2011);
Point 3.3.
“…while the idea of ‘time poverty’ is not new and many
time-use analyses have hinted at the concept, there have been few attempts to
formally profile society’s ‘time-poor’.” (Chatzitheochari and Arber, 2012);
Point 3.4.
“A lower
social participation rate in extracurricular organisations decreases opportunities
for informal learning and consequently reduces life chances. Poverty research
has demonstrated that financial constraints and the social withdrawal that
result from feelings of shame cause lower participation rates” (Damelang and Kloß, 2013);
Point 3.5.
“Banerjee
and colleagues found little support for the proposed benefits (i.e., the
empowerment of women, the increased levels of health and education) of entrepreneurship via microfinance in a
study comparing poor neighborhoods serviced by a microfinance lender to those
that were not … Implied is that this approach to poverty alleviation may result
in an inequitable distribution of benefits” (Gau,
Ramirez, Barua and Gonzalez, 2014);
Point 3.6.
“Despite
the need this population has for counseling
services, the values, expectations, and requirements for participating in
counseling may be at odds with the needs of many poor people. This is often the
case because most traditional counseling models are more consistent with
middle-class values than with values exhibited by poor people in U.S. society”
(Foss,
Generali and Kress, 2011);
Point 3.7.
“Free
time … is… the
time that remains at one’s own discretion after conducting daily work and
personal care activities, …… recent
years have witnessed an increasing preoccupation with the phenomenon of time
poverty, drawing attention to the distribution of free time and its
relationship to structural and family circumstances” (Chatzitheochari and Arber, 2012);
Point 3.8.
“How should concentrated poverty be measured? U.S. scholars have almost
universally defined it as census tracts in which 40 percent or more of the
population falls below the official federal poverty line. This standard, originally
based on a minimally acceptable diet, has become increasingly divorced from the
realities of our affluent society and ignores differences across metropolitan
areas” (Swanstrom, Ryan and
Stigers, 2008);
Point 3.9.
“Optimism for
micro-finance was
high from the late 1990s to the mid-2000s, culminating with events like the
Microcredit Summit in 1997, where delegates from the United Nations (UN) and
the World Bank, together with individuals such as Bill and Hillary Clinton and
megastar Bono, pronounced the goal of alleviating all poverty through the practice
of micro-finance” (Hsu, 2014);
Point 3.10.
“Poverty studies worldwide
have demonstrated that the need to avoid
and/or conceal shame emanating from a state of deprivation is acutely felt
by those living in poverty …, and is just as pertinent in relatively affluent
countries as it is in poor-resource ones” (Jo, 2012);
Point 3.11.
“The empirical study of free time owes a great deal to the
development of the time-diary methodology, which constitutes the most accurate
and reliable method for the measurement of time allocation at a population
level” (Chatzitheochari and
Arber, 2012);
Point 3.12.
“The
proposition that global poverty can
be alleviated by companies in partnership with national or regional governments
and a range of NGOs has gained widespread credibility through many successful
case examples. These examples include the programme of ‘Patrimonio Hoy’ by the Mexican
company Cemex, Grameen Telecom in Bangladesh, Kick Start in Kenya, the alliance
of Starbucks with Conservation International …” (Chatterjee,
2009);
Point 3.13.
“The
study of MDPs [microenterprise development
programmes] as a mean of attaining social and gender emancipation lacks a
rich understanding of the local context in which social and gender inequalities
are framed. Consequently, it ignores the hegemonic discourses that accept class
and gender inequities as legitimately constructed social and gender realities”
(Strier, 2010);
Point 3.14.
“Until recently, a lack of appropriate
data has stifled proper examination of long-term
poverty and poverty dynamics in developing countries” (Nandy, 2008);
Point 3.15.
“Urban poverty and rural poverty can differ in several aspects. First, urban poverty
did not experienced reduction during 2000s. …. Second, urban poverty can be underestimated using household surveys ….. Migrants
and unregistered people in urban areas who are more likely to be poor are not sampled
in household surveys. Third, the urban poor can include a large number of
temporary migrants and unregistered people. These groups are more vulnerable to
economic shocks and not entitled for social protection policies such as credit
subsidy and health insurance .…. Fourth, there is a widening gap in welfare
even within urban areas” (Misturelli
and Heffernan, 2011);
Point 3.16.
“While
accelerated growth in India has been widely attributed to the reforms of the
early 1990s, their impact on poverty
is still much debated” (Siggel, 2010);
Theme 4: Major trends and issues
related to practices
Point 4.1.
“…the
poverty and social exclusion target
is revealing of the fundamental
conflicts around social policy and the model of capitalism to be promoted
in the EU” (Copeland and Daly, 2012);
Point 4.2.
“…there
are two paths out of poverty in
Kagera. For those with sufficient endowments of land and human capital there is
agriculture, which lies at the heart of village economies. The more successful
people were those who have diversified their farming activities, growing food
crops for their own consumption, cash crops for sale, and keeping livestock” (De Weerdt, 2010);
Point 4.3.
“A
large proportion of the clients served by community
mental health centers are individuals classified as working poor and those
living in poverty” (Foss, Generali and Kress, 2011);
Point 4.4.
“In 2008 and 2009, micro-credit
industries crashed in Bosnia, Morocco, Nicaragua, and Pakistan. Analysts
blamed various causes such as debtor revolts and political backlash. In 2010, a
rash of suicides associated with micro-credit repayments in India further
tarred the practice of social incentive” (Hsu, 2014);
Point 4.5.
“In
the United States of America poverty remains high even in a time of relative prosperity and low unemployment. In the 1930s
and 1960s when poverty was high it led to a massive poor peoples movement” (Difazio,
1998);
Point 4.6.
“Israel has developed a strong, free-market economy. Economic
and social policies in the last decade have replicated those of other
neoliberal economies: frequent reductions in the national budget, increasing
privatization, the opening of local markets to globalization, repeated welfare
cutbacks, an emerging welfare-to-work reform and a constant erosion of social
benefits. These policies have ….turned Israel into the country with the highest
percentage of child poverty among
the industrialized countries” (Strier,
2010);
Point 4.7.
“More
than one-fifth of the human population are poor and half of them live in “abject poverty” with less than a dollar
income per day. There are other types of inequalities which are a drag on human progress as a whole” (Baneshananda, 2014);
Point 4.8.
“Policymakers
increasingly focus on the market for promoting gender equity and alleviating poverty among low-income women.
Development agencies claim that MPDs [microenterprise development programmes]
enable people to work their way out of poverty” (Strier, 2010);
Point 4.9.
“There
are some challenges to further reduction
of poverty in Vietnam. First, when poverty rate is as low as it is now, a
relatively large proportion of the poor are in chronic poverty, which tend to
be more resistant to economic growth .… Second, economic growth itself has
slowed down since 2008 due to the global economic crisis. ….Third, the
proportion of households who are just above the poverty line tends to increase,
indicating that a growing number of near-poor households are vulnerable to
shocks (economic and social) … Fourth, the integration process also produces
the so-called agglomeration effects with the resultant acceleration of the
urbanization process” (Misturelli
and Heffernan, 2011);
Each of the four themes has a set of
associated points (i.e., idea, viewpoints, concepts and findings). Together
they provide an organized way to comprehend the knowledge structure of the poverty
topic. The bolded key words in the quotation reveal, based on the writer’s
intellectual judgement, the key concepts examined in the poverty literature.
The referencing indicated on the points identified informs the readers where to
find the academic articles to learn more about the details on these points.
Readers are also referred to the Literature
on poverty Facebook page for additional information on this topic. The
process of conducting the thematic analysis is an exploratory as well as
synthetic learning endeavour on the topic’s literature. Once the structure of
the themes, sub-themes[1]
and their associated points are finalized, the reviewer is in a position to
move forward to step 2 of the MMBLR approach. The MMBLR approach step 2
finding, i.e., a companion mind map on poverty, is presented in the next
section.
Mind
mapping-based literature review on poverty: step 2 (mind mapping) output
By adopting the findings from the MMBLR
approach step 1 on poverty, the writer constructs a companion mind map shown as
Figure 1.
Referring to the mind map on poverty, the
topic label is shown right at the centre of the map as a large blob. Four main
branches are attached to it, corresponding to the four themes identified in the
thematic analysis. The links and ending nodes with key phrases represent the
points from the thematic analysis. The key phrases have also been bolded in the
quotations provided in the thematic analysis. As a whole, the mind map renders
an image of the knowledge structure on poverty based on the thematic analysis
findings. Constructing the mind map is part of the learning process on
literature review. The mind mapping process is speedy and entertaining. The
resultant mind map also serves as a useful presentation and teaching material.
This mind mapping experience confirms the writer’s previous experience using on
the MMBLR approach (Ho, 2016). Readers are also referred to the Literature on literature review Facebook
page and the Literature on mind
mapping Facebook page for additional information on these two topics.
Concluding
remarks
The MMBLR approach to study poverty provided
here is mainly for its practice illustration as its procedures have been
refined via a number of its employment on an array of topics (Ho, 2016). No
major additional MMBLR steps nor notions have been introduced in this article.
In this respect, the exercise reported here primarily offers some pedagogical
value as well as some systematic and stimulated learning on poverty in Social
Sciences (including Housing Studies). Nevertheless, the thematic findings and
the image of the knowledge structure on poverty in the form of a mind map should
also be of academic value to those who research on this topic.
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