Mind mapping the topic of expatriate management (EM)
Joseph Kim-keung Ho
Independent
Trainer
Hong
Kong, China
Abstract: The topic of expatriate
management (EM) is a main one in global business management. This article makes
use of the mind mapping-based literature review (MMBLR) approach to render an
image on the knowledge structure of expatriate management. The finding of the
review exercise is that its knowledge structure comprises four main themes,
i.e., (a) Descriptions of basic concepts, (b) Major underlying theories and
thinking, (c) Main research topics and issues, and (d) Major trends and issues
related to practices. There is also a set of key concepts identified
from the EM literature review. The article offers some academic and
pedagogical values on the topics of EM, literature review and the mind
mapping-based literature review (MMBLR) approach.
Key words: Expatriate
management (EM), literature review, mind map, the mind mapping-based literature
review (MMBLR) approach, global business management
Introduction
Expatriate management
(EM) is a main topic in global business management. It is of
academic and pedagogical interest to the writer who has been a lecturer on
global business management for some tertiary education centres in Hong Kong. In
this article, the writer presents his literature review findings on EM using
the mind mapping-based literature review (MMBLR) approach. This approach was
proposed by this writer this year and has been employed to review the
literature on a number of topics, such as supply chain management, strategic
management accounting and customer relationship management (Ho, 2016). The
MMBLR approach itself is not particularly novel since mind mapping has been
employed in literature review since its inception. The overall aims of this
exercise are to:
1.
Render an image of the knowledge structure of
expatriate management (EM) via the
application of the MMBLR approach;
2.
Illustrate how the MMBLR approach can be
applied in literature review on an academic topic, such as EM.
The findings from this literature review
exercise offer academic and pedagogical values to those who are interested in
the topics of EM, literature review and the MMBLR approach. Other than that,
this exercise facilitates this writer’s intellectual learning on these three
topics. The next section makes a brief introduction on the MMBLR approach.
After that, an account of how it is applied to study EM is presented.
On mind
mapping-based literature review
The mind mapping-based literature review
(MMBLR) approach was developed by this writer this year (Ho, 2016). It makes
use of mind mapping as a complementary literature review exercise (see the Literature on mind mapping Facebook page
and the Literature on literature review
Facebook page). The approach is made up of two steps. Step 1 is a thematic
analysis on the literature of the topic chosen for study. Step 2 makes use of
the findings from step 1 to produce a complementary mind map. The MMBLR
approach is a relatively straightforward and brief exercise. The approach is
not particularly original since the idea of using mind maps in literature
review has been well recognized in the mind mapping literature. The MMBLR
approach is also an interpretive exercise in the sense that different reviewers
with different research interest and intellectual background inevitably will
select different ideas, facts and findings in their thematic analysis (i.e.,
step 1 of the MMBLR approach). Also, to conduct the approach, the reviewer
needs to perform a literature search beforehand. Apparently, what a reviewer
gathers from a literature search depends on what library facility, including
e-library, is available to the reviewer. The next section presents the findings
from the MMBLR approach step 1; afterward, a companion mind map is provided
based on the MMBLR approach step 1 findings.
Mind
mapping-based literature review on expatriate management (EM): step 1 findings
Step 1 of the MMBLR approach is a thematic analysis on
the literature of the topic under investigation (Ho, 2016). In our case, this
is the EM topic. The writer gathers some academic articles from some
universities’ e-libraries as well as via the Google Scholar. With the academic
articles collected, the writer conducted a literature review on them to
assemble a set of ideas, viewpoints, concepts and findings (called points
here). The points from the EM literature are then grouped into four themes
here. The key words in the quotations are bolded in order to highlight the key
concepts involved.
Theme
1: Descriptions of basic concepts
Point 1.1.
“Expatriate women and wives of expatriates can be categorized … into three groups: transferees, trailers and
independents. While transferees and independents are assured of continuing
their career across borders before entering the host country, the same cannot
be said for accompanying spouses” (Roos, 2013);
Point 1.2.
“Managers
and their families may return early for a variety of reasons .….To offset such
problems, local staff and managers could be used to substitute them and in so
doing contribute to the development of the local operation, the career
advancement of local talent and the diversity of the parent business. Thus, the
process of replacing expatriate managers with local talent is called localization” (Bhanugopan and
Fish, 2007);
Point 1.3.
“Self-initiated
expatriates (SIEs) are defined as individuals
who are not assigned to another country by an organization but have instead
chosen to work and live in another country on their own arrangement … Due to
talent shortages in many countries and the increasing demand for mobile and
interculturally competent employees with differentiated skill sets …., SIEs are
strategically valuable human resources for multinational corporations ….. and
are employed in large numbers” (Cao, Hirschi and Deller, 2014);
Point 1.4.
“Some individuals take the initiative, independent of an employer,
to move to a foreign location for employment, career and/or travel or lifestyle
reasons. These people have been referred to in the literature to date by a
variety of terms, typifying them and their behaviours. Terms include ‘overseas
experience’ (OE) …., ‘self-designed apprenticeship’….., ‘free travelers’ …..,
‘self-initiated foreign work experience’ (SFE) ….. and, latterly, ‘self-initiated expatriate’ (SIE)” (Doherty,
2013);
Theme 2: Major underlying theories and thinking
Point 2.1.
“…intercultural competence was emphasized in relation to
expatriate training and selection because cross-cultural training is based on
the assumption that intercultural competence can be learned and taught” (Van Bakel, Gerritsen and
Oudenhoven, 2014);
Point 2.2.
“…unlike AEs [company-assigned expatriates], whose assignment is
programmed for a fixed period of time, SIEs [self-initiated expatriates] usually stay for a
temporary but undefined period of time in the host country” (Cao, Hirschi and
Deller, 2014);
Point 2.3.
“AEs [company-assigned
expatriates] may identify themselves more with headquarters …. and
have easier access to social capitals within the organization in the host
country …. than SIEs [self-initiated expatriates]. In contrast, SIEs rely more on their personal resources for the
work transition and are found to have more interactions with various host
country nationals” (Cao, Hirschi and Deller, 2014);
Point 2.4.
“Conscious efforts at adjustment occur because expatriates
realize that they cannot— in their own eyes or in the opinion of relevant
Others - fully meet the demands raised by the move to another country, or that
aspects of the move do not meet expectations. This creates a subjective need to
change” (Haslberger, Brewster and Hippler, 2013);
Point 2.5.
“International assignments (IAs) are beneficial for the development of the skills,
insights, and motivation of employees working abroad and are seen as an
effective method for developing global leaders …. Such assignments offer
“mind-stretching” experiences and development opportunities that influence
one’s identity ….. and future career expectations and intentions” (Mäkelä et al., 2015);
Point 2.6.
“Poor spousal adjustment, undoubtedly, adversely affects expatriate
adjustment …, and this has the potential of bringing about negative
consequences ranging from psychological withdrawal to lower performance” (Yu,
Yi, Chiao and Wei, 2005);
Point 2.7.
“We position expatriate adjustment within the wider psychological literature,
where adjustment has been conceptualized as person environment (P-E) fit, as
“the goodness of fit between the characteristics of the person and the
properties of the environment” … P-E fit models address the interaction between
individual and environment, both of which must meet each other’s requirements
for the interaction to be maintained” (Haslberger,
Brewster and Hippler, 2013);
Point 2.8.
“What matters for expatriate ROI is that, if measurement
is a data-driven process to facilitate decision making, it must also, in some
way, influence employee behavior, with measurement systems being designed with
the desired employee behavioral outcomes in mind” (Mcnulty and Cieri, 2013);
Point 2.9.
“While
job embeddedness has shown to be a
powerful predictor of performance and job moves in the domestic context …, Shen
and Hall … expect job embeddedness to be
central to the success of international work experiences as well. Yet, current
research that applies job embeddedness theory to international moves provides
only some guidance on retention of assigned expatriates … and SIE …, and none
on expatriate performance” (Andresen, 2015);
Point 2.10.
“A number of writers, including
Chowanec and Newstrom … and Oddou …., advocate that attention to four aspects
contributes to the success of
international assignments. These aspects are selection, preparation,
management (active support), and repatriation” (Anderson, 2001);
Point 2.11.
“Expatriate
adjustment has typically been conceived of as
a state along the continuum from “adjusted” to “not adjusted” regarding three
facets: adjustment to the workplace abroad, to interacting with host nationals,
and to the general environment” (Haslberger, Brewster
and Hippler, 2013);
Point 2.12.
“Expatriates are typically remunerated according to the
compensation level of their home countries, whereas local employees are paid
according to the local labor market, resulting in a large gap in compensation between these two groups. In these MNC
operations, locals do compare with expatriates and report low distributive
justice …., which is related to negative outcomes, such as low job
satisfaction” (Leung, Lin and Lu, 2014);
Point 2.13.
“In their review of the international
relocation adjustment literature, Aycan … and Ward ….collectively identified
the following conceptualizations, among others, of adjustment: attitudes toward the host culture, physical health,
feelings of acceptance and satisfaction, nature and extent of interaction with
host nationals, acquisition of culturally acceptable skills and behaviors,
professional performance, and mental health. Added to this list are the degree
of perceived psychological comfort …, successful reinforcement substitution ….,
cross-cultural effectiveness …. and effective interpersonal functioning” (Hippler, Caligiuri and Johnson,
2014);
Point 2.14.
“Job embeddedness results from an
accumulation of individual resources that are restricted to a specific
community, organization, and position …. Conservation of Resources (COR) theory
… posits that individuals are motivated to protect their current resources
(conservation) and acquire new resources (acquisition) that are perceived by
the individuals to help attain their goals …. Expatriates who lose resources
within the organization and/or the community in the course of their
international relocation or who experience a lack of an expected gain in
resources abroad are likely to experience strain …. A loss of resources or a
lack of an expected gain in resources amounts to a lowering of job
embeddedness” (Andresen, 2015);
Point 2.15.
“Networks and social connections
while working abroad are likely to increase as expatriates are found to have
more social capital compared to
their counterparts working in domestic settings” (Mäkelä et al., 2015);
Point 2.16.
“The Expat Explorer Survey … found that 58% of expatriates were
more likely to go out with expatriate friends than with local friends: they
remain in the so-called expatriate bubble …. It is, therefore,
important to find ways to facilitate contacts with host nationals since this
contact does not develop by itself..” (Van Bakel,
Gerritsen and Oudenhoven, 2014);
Point 2.17.
“The increasing globalization of firms has given rise to a growth
in the number of international
assignments of employees. The fundamental role attributed to these
assignments has been that of control and coordination of operations” (Bonache and Brewster, 2001);
Theme 3: Main research topics and issues
Point 3.1.
“…our
understanding of expatriates and
their management is notably less than that of other employees. Indeed,
expatriates are often far from being the best-managed employees” (Shih, Kim and Chiang, 2004);
Point 3.2.
“Despite
the significant amount of expatriate literature and the importance of the issue
of how expatriates perform (especially in view of potential costs involved with
underperformance and turnover), few studies have empirically investigated predictors of expatriate performance” (Andresen,
2015);
Point 3.3.
“Fish and
Wood … identified some critical factors
such as professional development, monetary satisfaction and international
career support that motivated managers to undertake cross border assignments.
As more and more multinational organizations assign staff to cross-border
assignments, researchers have become concerned with the many challenges that are associated with
cross border assignments” (Bhanugopan and Fish, 2007);
Point 3.4.
“From the early days of repatriation research it was
clear that considerable numbers leave their organization within a short time of
repatriation” (Mäkelä et al., 2015);
Point 3.5.
“In the expatriation context examining AEs [company-assigned expatriates], stress theories
have been mostly applied to explain the positive effect of POS [perceived
organizational support] on expatriation outcomes …. Work and life transition to a
foreign culture is believed to be a stressful life event ….. Support from an
organization enhances expatriates’ ability to cope with such stress in foreign
sites and is hence positively associated with expatriation outcomes such as
expatriate adjustment …., intention to complete the expatriation assignment
….and job performance” (Cao, Hirschi and Deller, 2014);
Point 3.6.
“Mendenhall,
Kuhlmann, Stahl, and Osland … have drawn attention to various persistent
inconsistencies or “paradoxes” in the expatriate
adjustment literature, which include the inconclusive evidence about the
effect of culture novelty/culture distance, pre-departure training, and
previous international experience on expatriate adjustment” (Hippler, Caligiuri and Johnson,
2014);
Point 3.7.
“One of the greatest challenges in the
currently dominant operationalization of
expatriate adjustment is that it avoids any explication of what is meant by
the term “adjustment.”..” (Hippler,
Caligiuri and Johnson, 2014);
Point 3.8.
“Theoretical
constructs which
have been applied in the study of SIEs [self-initiated expatriates] include
motivational drivers for mobility …, adjustment …, career anchors …, capital …
and career capital …. While these works shed light on some aspects of SIEs,
there is no clear framework to help synthesize this body of knowledge” (Doherty,
2013);
Point 3.9.
“…most studies on SIE
[self-initiated expatriate] so far have drawn on samples of well-educated,
young individuals, holding professional positions, who have moved between
developed countries (e.g. New Zealand, the UK, Finland, Canada and Australia)”
(Doherty, 2013);
Point 3.10.
“Although
the public sector literature addressing the management of expatriates appears
to be relatively scarce, articles such as that of Stening …, which investigates
the expatriate management practices used during the British administration of
India, are reminders of the long history of expatriate service in the public sector” (Anderson, 2001);
Point 3.11.
“International
assignments and expatriation are major (and expensive) activities, yet few
companies have developed sound practices for measuring the success of these initiatives. In particular,
measuring expatriate return on
investment (ROI) has preoccupied the relocation industry for a long time,
with a heavy focus on metrics” (Mcnulty
and Cieri, 2013);
Point 3.12.
“Performance management (PM) has traditionally been used as a guide for employee
performance. Over the past 20 years, the focus of PM has expanded from
evaluating employee performance to more comprehensive functions such as goal
setting, training, feedback and development, and motivation …. As regards
expatriate performance management (EPM), however, there is scant empirical
literature” (Shih, Kim and Chiang, 2004);
Point 3.13.
“This appears to have led to a lack of clarity in the construct of SIEs [self-initiated
expatriate] and in what distinguishes them from other mobile populations
thus blurring the boundaries with groups such as immigrants” (Doherty,
2013);
Point 3.14.
“Whereas scholars examined the role of POS [perceived
organizational support] in the context of AEs [company-assigned expatriates] extensively,
they have not devoted much attention to its role in the context of SIEs [self-initiated
expatriates]” (Cao, Hirschi and Deller, 2014);
Theme 4: Major trends and issues related to
practices
Point 4.1.
“Business travel
emerged as a key issue in terms of extending working hours for expatriates
…. Business trips are known to be a
significant cause of work-related stress, particularly when they involve
separation from families over either extended or repeated periods” (Shortland and Cummins, 2007);
Point 4.2.
“Expatriates
are known to suffer stressors beyond
what most of their home-based peers experience, including living in hostile,
remote, or difficult locations; being separated from families and friends;
having to become familiar with a new job in a different country; dealing with
concerns about children’s education and potential career disruption for a
working spouse/partner; finding accommodation and moving the household to an
unfamiliar location; working in a different linguistic and cultural environment
and experiencing culture shock; and coping with fears over career progression
and repatriation” (Shortland
and Cummins, 2007);
Point 4.3.
“Expatriates look for job opportunities outside their firm and outside their own country
while on assignment. They are attractive to international headhunters and
corporate recruiters, and they believe that their international experience
increases their marketability to
other employers” (Mäkelä
et al., 2015);
Point 4.4.
“In the development of intercultural competencies
international work experiences play a critical role …. Thus, regarding the
sourcing of intercultural competencies companies typically face a make-or-buy
decision in that they can choose between developing employees in-house, e.g. by
moving them to another country (organizational expatriates (OE)), or purchasing
these competencies from the external labor market, e.g. by hiring
internationally mobile, foreign employees (self-initiated expatriates (SIE))” (Andresen,
2015);
Point 4.5.
“The effect of living and working
abroad can be a disorientating culture
shock for many expatriates.…. expatriates can often feel ambivalent about
both their host country as well as their home nation, comparing the two
endlessly and not feeling totally at home in either” (Park-Tons, 2013);
Point 4.6.
“This
global “war
for talent” … is particularly acute for MNEs
given the very high direct and opportunity costs of recruiting and placing
expatriates …, and their strategic and operational importance to the firm … The
competitive reality is that organisations face pressure to market themselves to
attract the best expatriates in the same way that businesses market goods and
services to consumers” (Glassock
and Fee, 2015);
Point 4.7.
“…despite
the fact that expatriate managers are coming back to what they consider “home,”
more than 60% experience significant “reverse
culture shock.” As a consequence, Harris … recommends that cross-cultural
training be provided for the repatriate, spouse, and family on return” (Anderson, 2001);
Point 4.8.
“…expatriates need to create
network ties in the host country in order to gain access to critical
information and also gain emotional support resources” (Mäkelä et al., 2015);
Point 4.9.
“…from
the point of view of expatriates, a foreign assignment is a high-pressure situation: their
wellbeing requires them to adjust as efficiently as possible” (Haslberger,
Brewster and Hippler, 2013);
Point 4.10.
“…some
transnational companies have mentor
programs with assigned mentors located at headquarters. These mentors are
to maintain regular contact with expatriates, allowing them to stay informed of
changes and events occurring at headquarters” (Anderson, 2001);
Point 4.11.
“In the globalized
economy, people who can cope successfully with the different tasks and
challenges in the international business environment are seen as valued
talents” (Mäkelä et al., 2015);
Point 4.12.
“In the past, expatriate spouses’ adaptation was not
a major problem for Taiwanese firms since there were only a small number of
Taiwan expatriates and most of them went without their spouses” (Yu,
Yi, Chiao and Wei, 2005);
Point 4.13.
“International experience slows executives’ promotion to the top, and,
indeed, it seems that the longer assignments are and the more often one has
been on assignment, the slower the progression becomes” (Mäkelä et al., 2015);
Point 4.14.
“Many MNCs do not consider
spouse/family as an important issue when selecting staff for expatriate
positions; hence, they may fail to interview an expatriate’s family in the recruiting process. Furthermore, a large
number of expatriate’s training programs do not include the accompanying
family” (Yu, Yi, Chiao and Wei, 2005);
Point 4.15.
“To
prepare for relocation,
….organizations should have clear relocation policies, predeparture
orientation, and on-site cultural adaptation training” (Anderson, 2001);
Point 4.16.
“U.S. personnel administrators base
the selection decision primarily on technical competence, with insufficient
emphasis being placed on the potential expatriate’s relational skills and family
situation” (Anderson,
2001);
Point 4.17.
“Whilst
establishing localization programmes
and policies in developing countries can be comparatively simple, successful
implementation can be complicated as expatriates need to work extended times in
not only undertaking their key responsibilities, but also importantly in
training and preparing their own replacements …. Expatriates can also have a
jaundiced view of localization policies, as they may have adapted well to the
local environment, hold a more influential position in their cross border
assignment than in their home countries, and can be threatened with employment
uncertainty at the end of their appointments” (Bhanugopan and Fish,
2007);
Point 4.18.
“Given the high cost of expatriates, there is pressure
to manage them effectively. This implies that they should adjust to their new
environment and become proficient there as quickly as possible” (Haslberger,
Brewster and Hippler, 2013);
Each of the four themes has a set of
associated points (i.e., idea, viewpoints, concepts and findings). Together
they provide an organized way to comprehend the knowledge structure of the expatriate
management (EM) topic. The bolded key words in the quotation reveal, based on
the writer’s intellectual judgement, the key concepts examined in the EM
literature. The referencing indicated on the points identified informs the
readers where to find the academic articles to learn more about the details on
these points. The process of conducting the thematic analysis is an exploratory
as well as synthetic learning endeavour on the topic’s literature. Once the
structure of the themes, sub-themes[1]
and their associated points are finalized, the reviewer is in a position to
move forward to step 2 of the MMBLR approach. The MMBLR approach step 2
finding, i.e., a companion mind map on EM, is presented in the next section.
Mind
mapping-based literature review on EM: step 2 (mind mapping) output
By adopting the findings from the MMBLR
approach step 1 on expatriate management (EM), the writer constructs a companion
mind map shown as Figure 1.
Referring to the mind map on EM, the topic
label is shown right at the centre of the map as a large blob. Four main
branches are attached to it, corresponding to the four themes identified in the
thematic analysis. The links and ending nodes with key phrases represent the
points from the thematic analysis. The key phrases have also been bolded in the
quotations provided in the thematic analysis. As a whole, the mind map renders
an image of the knowledge structure on EM based on the thematic analysis
findings. Constructing the mind map is part of the learning process on
literature review. The mind mapping process is speedy and entertaining. The
resultant mind map also serves as a useful presentation and teaching material.
This mind mapping experience confirms the writer’s previous experience using on
the MMBLR approach (Ho, 2016). Readers are also referred to the Literature on literature review Facebook
page and the Literature on mind
mapping Facebook page for additional information on these two topics.
Concluding
remarks
The MMBLR approach to study EM provided here
is mainly for its practice illustration as its procedures have been refined via
a number of its employment on an array of topics (Ho, 2016). No major
additional MMBLR steps nor notions have been introduced in this article. In
this respect, the exercise reported here primarily offers some pedagogical
value as well as some systematic and stimulated learning on expatriate
management (EM) in global business management. Nevertheless, the thematic
findings and the image of the knowledge structure on EM in the form of a mind
map should also be of academic value to those who research on this topic.
Bibliography
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